Subject: rec.aviation.military Frequently Asked Questions From: avfaq@acheron.amigans.gen.nz (Ross Smith) Organization: The Boyz from the Dwarf Date: Mon, 18 Apr 94 17:55:00 GMT+12 Summary: This post contains some answers to frequently asked questions on military aviation. It should be read by anyone posting to the rec.aviation.military newsgroup. Archive-Name: mil-aviation-faq/ Last-Modified: 18-Apr-1994 rec.aviation.military Frequently Asked Questions Ross Smith avfaq@acheron.amigans.gen.nz ------------------------------ ~Subject: 1.1. Introduction Every newsgroup on Usenet finds that certain questions crop up time after time. Regular readers of a group get tired of seeing the same old questions (and posting the same old answers) time and time again, while new readers wonder why they're getting so many impolite replies, and so few useful ones, to perfectly reasonable queries. The result is frustration all round. This list of Frequently Asked Questions attempts to provide answers to some of the most popular questions about military aircraft and aviation. It will be posted to rec.aviation.military every month. If you're fairly new to this group (or even if you're not) and have a question related to military aviation, you should check here first, to avoid wasting bandwidth on a topic that may have already been discussed many times. Of course, this is not intended to discourage interesting discussions; if you have something new to say about any of the topics covered here (or any other topic, for that matter), by all means share it with us. A few questions still lack answers. Further contributions are welcome; send any comments, corrections, new questions, or new answers to me at the address above (note that the address for FAQ-related mail is different from my normal address). If you send me mail about the FAQ, please reduce any quoted material to the absolute minimum (ideally, just give the number of the question and answer you're talking about). This FAQ file is copyright 1994 by Ross Smith. It may be copied and archived freely, provided it remains unchanged. Portions may be quoted with appropriate acknowledgements. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 1.2. Table of contents [* Significant changes to this entry] [** New entry] [Some of the items in sections 1 and 6 have been renumbered since the last posting] Section 1. Preliminaries 1.1. Introduction * 1.2. Table of contents ** 1.3. A note on character sets * 1.4. Common abbreviations ** 1.5. Conversion factors Section 2. Post-WW2 Aircraft 2.1. Why is the "stealth fighter" called F-117 instead of F-19? 2.2. Does the USAF have a hypersonic spyplane called "Aurora"? 2.3. What's the status of current projects? 2.4. Why was the YF-22 chosen over the YF-23? * 2.5. Is fighter X better than fighter Y? 2.6. Why wasn't the B-1 or B-2 used in Desert Storm? * 2.7. What's happened to the former USSR's aircraft carriers? 2.8. Why do USAF aircraft have tailhooks? 2.9. Is aircraft X still in service? * 2.10. Did one of the XB-70 prototypes crash during a photo shoot? * 2.11. What's an Su-35? 2.12. Why do recent articles refer to the "Lockheed F-16"? ** 2.13. What air-to-air missiles are in service? Section 3. World War II Aircraft * 3.1. What jet aircraft were the Germans working on during WW2? Section 4. Books and Sources 4.1. What good books are there on air combat? 4.2. Where can I get a pilot's manual for aircraft X? * 4.3. What FTP sites have aircraft pictures and related material? Section 5. Museums and Warbirds * 5.1. Where can I see surviving examples of famous aircraft? Section 6. Aircraft designations * 6.1. American aircraft designations 6.2. US Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962) ** 6.3. USAF/USN fighters and attack aircraft * 6.4. American missile designations * 6.5. Russian aircraft designations * 6.6. Russian aircraft codenames * 6.7. Russian missile designations and codenames 6.8. British aircraft designations 6.9. Canadian aircraft designations 6.10. Chinese aircraft designations ** 6.11. German aircraft designations (WW2) * 6.12. Japanese aircraft designations and codenames (WW2) 6.13. Swedish aircraft designations Section 7. Notes 7.1. Reference books 7.2. Magazines 7.3. Acknowledgements ------------------------------ ~Subject: 1.3. A note on character sets A FAQ on a subject like this will necessarily include a lot of non-English names and words which contain letters not in the English alphabet, mainly accented vowels. I don't like the idea of forcing foreign words into an English straitjacket by converting these letters into diphthongs (or, even worse, just ignoring the accents). There is an international standard 8-bit character set, ISO 8859/1, also known as Latin 1; it's an extension of 7-bit ASCII to include most of the characters used in European languages. I've used the Latin 1 characters in this document. A lot of news transport and news reading software now supports Latin 1, and it's becoming more widely supported; unfortunately, there's still a lot of software around that reduces everything to 7-bit ASCII. For the benefit of those using such software, here's a table of the accented vowels in Latin 1 (not all of these appear in this document, of course), so you can tell whether you have 8-bit software, and if not, which characters the accented vowels are being turned into. If you come across a name that seems to be spelled oddly, this should help you figure out what it's meant to be. Letter A a E e I i O o U u Acute accent (') Á á É é Í í Ó ó Ú ú Grave accent (`) À à È è Ì ì Ò ò Ù ù Caret (^) Â â Ê ê Î î Ô ô Û û Tilde (~) Ã ã - - - - Õ õ - - Umlaut (") Ä ä Ë ë Ï ï Ö ö Ü ü Ring (o) Å å - - - - - - - - Slash (/) - - - - - - Ø ø - - ------------------------------ ~Subject: 1.4. Common abbreviations (See also section 6) Abbreviations in common use on Usenet :-) = Smile :-( = Frown AFAIK = As Far As I Know AKA = Also Known As BTW = By The Way FAQ = Frequently Asked Questions FTP = File Transfer Protocol FWIW = For What It's Worth FYI = For Your Information GIF = Graphic Interchange Format IIRC = If I Remember Correctly IMHO = In My Humble Opinion IMNSHO = In My Not So Humble Opinion ISTR = I Seem To Recall ROTFL = Rolling On The Floor Laughing WRT = With Respect To YMMV = Your Mileage May Vary Abbreviations related to military aviation AA = Anti-Aircraft AAA = Anti-Aircraft Artillery AAM = Air-to-Air Missile AB = Air Base AC = Aircraft ACM = Air Combat Manoeuvring AEW = Airborne Early Warning AEW&C = Airborne Early Warning and Control AF = Air Force AFB = Air Force Base AFTI = Advanced Fighter Technology Integration AGM = Air-to-Ground Missile AH = Attack Helicopter ALARM = Air-Launched Anti-Radiation Missile ALCM = Air-Launched Cruise Missile AMRAAM = Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile AOA = Angle of Attack AP = Armour Piercing APU = Auxiliary Power Unit ARH = Active Radar Homing ARM = Anti-Radiation Missile ASM = Air-to-Surface Missile ASPJ = Airborne Self-Protection Jammer ASRAAM = Advanced Short-Range Air-to-Air Missile ASTOVL = Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing ASV = Anti-Surface-Vessel ASW = Anti-Submarine Warfare AT = Advanced Trainer ATB = Advanced Technology Bomber ATF = Advanced Tactical Fighter ATGM = Anti-Tank Guided Missile ATGW = Anti-Tank Guided Weapon ATM = Anti-Tank Missile AWACS = Airborne Warning and Control System BDA = Bomb Damage Assessment BUFF = Big Ugly Fat Fucker (B-52) CAD = Computer Aided Design CAG = Carrier Air Group CAM = Computer Aided Manufacturing CAP = Combat Air Patrol CAS = Close Air Support CO = Commanding Officer COD = Carrier On-Board Delivery COIN = Counter-Insurgency CTOL = Conventional Take-Off and Landing CV = Carrier, Heavier-than-Air CVA = Carrier, Heavier-than-Air, Attack CVN = Carrier, Heavier-than-Air, Nuclear CVS = Carrier, Heavier-than-Air, Anti-Submarine DACT = Dissimilar Air Combat Training DS = Desert Storm EAP = Experimental Aircraft Programme ECCM = Electronic Counter-Countermeasures ECM = Electronic Countermeasures ECR = Electronic Combat and Reconnaissance EFA = European Fighter Aircraft EFIS = Electronic Flight Information System ehp = Equivalent Horsepower ekW = Equivalent Kilowatts ELINT = Electronic Intelligence EMP = Electromagnetic Pulse ESM = Electronic Support/Surveillance Measures Eurofar = European Future Advanced Rotorcraft EW = Electronic Warfare FAC = Forward Air Control FB = Fighter-Bomber FBW = Fly by Wire FGA = Fighter/Ground Attack FLA = Future Large Airlifter FLIR = Forward-Looking Infrared FOD = Foreign Object Damage FR = Flight Refuelling FSW = Forward-Swept Wings Ftr = Fighter FY = Fiscal Year GA = Ground Attack GCA = Ground Controlled Approach GCI = Ground Controlled Interception GPS = Global Positioning System HARM = High-Speed Anti-Radiation Missile HE = High Explosive Helo = Helicopter HOTAS = Hands On Throttle and Stick HUD = Head-Up Display IAS = Indicated Airspeed IFF = Identification Friend-or-Foe IFR = Instrument Flight Rules IIR = Imaging Infrared INS = Inertial Navigation System Intel = Intelligence IR = Infrared IRH = Infrared Homing IRST = Infrared Search and Track JATO = Jet-Assisted Take-Off JPATS = Joint Primary Aircraft Training System JSTARS = Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System JTIDS = Joint Tactical Information Distribution System KE = Kinetic Energy LAMPS = Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System LANA = Low-Level All-Weather Night Attack LANTIRN = Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night LCA = Light Combat Aircraft LGB = Laser-Guided Bomb LLLTV = Low-Light-Level Television LTA = Lighter Than Air LWF = Lightweight Fighter M = Mach MAD = Magnetic Anomaly Detection MG = Machine Gun MP = Maritime Patrol MRF = Multirole Fighter MSIP = Multi-Stage Improvement Programme NAS = Naval Air Station NATF = Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter NAVSAT = Navigation Satellite NAW = Night/All Weather NOTAR = No Tail Rotor PR = Photographic Reconnaissance PT = Primary Trainer RATO = Rocket-Assisted Take-Off Recce = Reconnaissance Recon = Reconnaissance RPV = Remote-Piloted Vehicle RWR = Radar Warning Receiver SABA = Small Agile Battlefield Aircraft SAM = Surface-to-Air Missile SAR = Search and Rescue SARH = Semi-Active Radar Homing SDI = Strategic Defense Initiative SFC = Specific Fuel Consumption SL = Sea Level SLAM = Standoff Land Attack Missile SLAR = Sideways-Looking Airborne Radar SLUF = Short Little Ugly Fucker (A-7) SOP = Standard Operating Procedure SPAAG = Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun Sqn = Squadron SR = Strategic Reconnaissance SRAM = Short-Range Attack Missile STOL = Short Take-Off and Landing STOVL = Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing TACAMO = Take Command and Move Out TARPS = Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pod System TAS = True Airspeed TASM = Tomahawk Anti-Ship Missile TFR = Terrain-Following Radar TIALD = Thermal Imaging and Laser Designation TLAM = Tomahawk Land Attack Missile TO&E = Table of Organisation and Equipment TOW = Tube-Launched Optically-Tracked Wire-Guided Missile TRAM = Target Recognition and Attack Multi-Sensor UAV = Unmanned Aerial Vehicle UH = Utility Helicopter VFR = Visual Flight Rules VG = Variable Geometry VIFF = Vectoring in Forward Flight V/STOL = Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing VTO = Vertical Take-Off VTOL = Vertical Take-Off and Landing WIGE = Wing In Ground Effect WSIP = Weapons System Improvement Programme WSO = Weapon Systems Officer Abbreviations for manufacturers' names AIDC = Aero Industry Development Centre (Taiwan) An = Antonov (Ukraine) AS = Aérospatiale (France) ASTA = Aerospace Technologies of Australia BAC = British Aircraft Corporation BAe = British Aerospace Be = Beriev (Russia) BMAC = Boeing Military Aircraft Corporation (USA) CAC = Chengdu Aircraft Corporation (China) CASA = Construcciones Aeronauticas SA (Spain) CNIAR = Centrul National al Industriei Aeronautice Române (Romania) DASA = Deutsche Aerospace SA (Germany) DH = De Havilland (UK) DHC = De Havilland Canada EC = Eurocopter (France/Germany) EHI = Ellicoteri/Helicopter Industries (Italy/UK) Embraer = Empresa Brasileira de Aeronautica (Brazil) Euroflag = European Future Large Airlifter Group (France/Germany/Italy/Portugal/Spain/Turkey/UK) GD = General Dynamics (USA) GE = General Electric (USA) HAL = Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (India) HAMC = Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (China) HP = Handley Page (UK) HS = Hawker Siddeley (UK) IAI = Israel Aircraft Industries Il = Ilyushin (Russia) Ka = Kamov (Russia) LTV = Ling-Temco-Vought (USA) MBB = Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (Germany) MD = McDonnell Douglas (USA) Mi = Mil (Russia) MiG = Mikoyan-Gurevich (Russia) NAMC = Nanchang Aircraft Manufacturing Company (China) P&W = Pratt and Whitney (USA) P&WC = Pratt and Whitney Canada RR = Rolls-Royce (UK) SAC = Shenyang Aircraft Corporation (China) SEPECAT = Société Européenne de Production de l'Avion d'Ecole de Combat et d'Appui Tactique (France/UK) Su = Sukhoi (Russia) Tu = Tupolev (Russia) XAC = Xian Aircraft Company (China) Yak = Yakovlev (Russia) Abbreviations for air forces and other organisations AFPLA = Air Force of the People's Liberation Army (China) AFRES = Air Force Reserve (USA) ANG = Air National Guard (USA) ARPA = Advanced Research Projects Agency (USA) AVMF = Aviatsiya Voenno-Morsko Flota (Naval Air Force) (Russia) BMDO = Ballistic Missile Defence Office (USA) CIS = Commonwealth of Independent States DA = Dalnaya Aviatsiya (Strategic Aviation) (Russia) DARPA = Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (USA) DOD = Department of Defense (USA) FA = Frontovaya Aviatsiya (Tactical Aviation) (Russia) FSU = Former Soviet Union FUSSR = Former USSR IDF/AF = Israeli Defence Force/Air Force (Heyl Ha'Avir) JASDF = Japan Air Self-Defence Force KLu = Koninklijke Luchtmacht (Royal Netherlands Air Force) MAC = Military Airlift Command (USA) MATS = Military Air Transport Service (USA) NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA) NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organisation PVO = Protivo-Vozdushnoy Oborony (Air Defence Force) (Russia) RAAF = Royal Australian Air Force RAF = Royal Air Force (UK) RNAF = Royal Norwegian Air Force RNZAF = Royal New Zealand Air Force ROKAF = Republic of Korea Air Force (South Korea) RSAF = Royal Saudi Air Force RVSN = Rakentye Voiska Strategityesko Naznatseniya (Strategic Missile Force) (Russia) SAAF = South African Air Force SAC = Strategic Air Command (USA) TAC = Tactical Air Command (USA) USAAF = United States Army Air Force USAF = United States Air Force USMC = United States Marine Corps USN = United States Navy VTA = Voenno-Transportnaya Aviatsiya (Military Transport Aviation) (Russia) VVSRF = Voenno-Vozdushniye Sily Rossiskoi Federatsii (Air Forces of the Russian Federation) WP = Warsaw Pact ------------------------------ ~Subject: 1.5. Conversion factors I've used metric units throughout this FAQ. The following conversion factors may come in useful. Length Inch = 2.540 cm Foot = 0.3048 m Yard = 0.9144 m Mile = 1.609 km Nautical mile = 1.852 km Volume Gallon (US) = 3.785 L Gallon (UK) = 4.546 L Mass Pound = 0.4536 kg Short ton = 907.2 kg Long ton = 1016 kg Speed Mile per hour = 1.609 km/h Knot = 1.852 km/h Force Pound force = 4.448 N Kilogram force = 9.807 N Power Horsepower = 0.7457 kW ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.1. Why is the "stealth fighter" called F-117 instead of F-19? Nobody really knows for sure. It's been suggested, and sounds plausible (but there's no real evidence), that it was called F-19 to start with, but the number was changed as a security measure after the open press started using that designation in the early 1980s (the aircraft first flew in 1981, but wasn't revealed to the public until 1988). Why they picked F-117 as the new number is a mystery; there are three main theories, any of them fairly plausible. The first theory has it that the "stealth fighter" (actually it's a bomber; see below) was flying from the same bases as the small fleet of captured Russian aircraft that the USAF flies; these are believed to use the nonexistent designations "F-112", "F-113" and so on as a cover, and the F-117 just happened to be the next number in sequence. The second theory claims that the aircraft was using the call sign "117" (possibly for reasons connected with the above, or possibly just an arbitrarily assigned number) on some of its early test flights, and the number just happened to stick (presumably for lack of any other designation); when Lockheed got around to printing pilot's manuals for the aircraft, they were labelled "F-117", and from then on it became official. The third theory is that there isn't any reason; the Pentagon just picked a number at random. There's also the separate question of why it was given an F-series (fighter) designation at all, when it's clearly a light bomber with essentially zero air-to-air capability; it should have an A-series (attack) or B-series (bomber) number. Again, the Pentagon isn't telling, but a favourite theory here on the Net is that the USAF, being dominated by former fighter pilots, couldn't bear the idea of its most glamorous plane having anything but a fighter designation... Finally, does the F-117 have a proper name? The one most commonly attached to it seems to be "Nighthawk", but opinions differ as to whether this actually has official status or is just a nickname. It's been pointed out that there is already a variant of the UH-60 with that name; this may not necessarily preclude the same name being used by the F-117, however (witness the case of the two Jayhawks). ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.2. Does the USAF have a hypersonic spyplane called "Aurora"? Maybe. Here's the evidence. In 1985, a censor's error let an item labelled "Aurora", with no further explanation, appear in that year's Pentagon budget request, with a reference to "production funding" for 1987. The Pentagon refused to comment on the item, and it has never been mentioned since. In 1986, the US government sealed off large areas of land around the top secret Groom Lake base in Nevada. Many new buildings have been built at Groom Lake during the 1980s, and intense activity continues. The extensive security measures imply that some very important and very secret activity is going on there. Officially, the USAF won't even admit that the base exists. In February 1988, the _New York Times_ reported that the USAF was working on a stealthy reconnaissance aircraft capable of Mach 6. The story was attributed to "Pentagon sources". In August 1989, Chris Gibson, an oil exploration engineer and former member of the Royal Observer Corps, was working on an oil rig in the North Sea when he saw an unusual formation of aircraft pass overhead. It consisted of a KC-135 tanker, two F-111s, and a fourth aircraft of a type that Gibson (an expert on aircraft recognition) had never seen before. Seen from below, it appeared to be a perfect triangle, similar in size to the escorting F-111s, with a leading edge sweep angle of about 75 degrees. It was completely black, with no visible details (unlike the F-111s), and appeared to be taking on fuel from the KC-135. In early 1990 the USAF retired its fleet of SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft; the official reason given was that satellites could now perform all strategic reconnaissance missions required by the Pentagon. Many observers consider this explanation to be suspicious, for several reasons. First, satellites exist in limited numbers and fixed, predictable orbits; surely there will always be a requirement for high-speed reconnaissance missions at short notice, which could only be performed by an aircraft like the SR-71. Second, the cost of running the SR-71 fleet was only about 7 per cent of what the Pentagon spends on satellites; it would still be a good investment even if only as an emergency backup. Third, the USAF never raised the slightest objection to the plan to replace manned aircraft with unmanned satellites, which is highly unusual behaviour for an organisation composed almost entirely of pilots. At about the same time, _Aviation Week_ carried reports from witnesses who had heard an incredibly loud aircraft taking off from Edwards Air Force Base in California late at night. Some of them referred to a pulsing sound with a period of about one second. On several occasions from June 1991 to June 1992, sonic booms were heard over southern California. They were not produced by any officially acknowledged military flight (which are always careful to remain subsonic over urban areas). The booms were powerful enough to show up on the seismographs operated by the US Geological Service, and the times of arrival of the sound at various points allowed fairly accurate calculation of the course and speed of the aircraft responsible; the USGS had already demonstrated this by tracking incoming space shuttles. The aircraft were headed northeast, over Los Angeles and the Mojave Desert, towards either the Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada or the nearby Groom Lake base. The speeds involved ranged from Mach 3 to Mach 4. In February 1992, _The Scotsman_ reported that an RAF air traffic controller, in November 1991, had seen a radar blip emerge from the base at Machrihanish, Scotland, and quickly accelerate to Mach 3. When he called Machrihanish to ask what had happened, he was told to forget it. In May 1992, a photographer snapped some strange contrails over Amarillo, Texas; the trails appeared to have been produced by a high-speed aircraft, and resembled "doughnuts on a rope". A few days later, similar trails were reported over Machrihanish. All this appears to add up to a hypersonic aircraft, with a cruising speed around Mach 6, being operated by the USAF from Groom Lake, Nevada, Edwards AFB, California, and Machrihanish, Scotland, since about 1988. The aircraft described by Chris Gibson matches several design studies of hypersonic aircraft in the 1970s and 80s, which came up with a triangular planform with a sweep angle of 75 degrees. The engines appear to be rocket based combined cycle (RBCC) engines, an advanced hybrid of turbojet, ramjet, and rocket. Unclassified studies from the US, Japan, and Russia have investigated RBCC engines for hypersonic propulsion; such engines would be extremely loud on take-off, would produce a pulsing sound with a frequency on the order of one second, would leave contrails resembling "doughnuts on a rope", and should theoretically have a maximum speed not far above Mach 6. The most likely fuel for an RBCC engine would be methane; given the assumptions of methane-fuelled RBCC engines, Mach 6 cruising speed, and intercontinental range, the resulting aircraft would indeed be about the size of an F-111. Does this aircraft exist? We don't know for certain, but the circumstantial evidence is certainly persuasive. Incidentally, the aircraft (if it exists) is almost certainly not called Aurora. Even if the mystery item in the 1985 budget did refer to this project, the name would probably have been changed after the security leak. But Aurora is the only name anyone has, so we continue to use it as a convenient label. [Most of this information comes from Bill Sweetman's book _Aurora_] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.3. What's the status of current projects? * A/F-X: The A/F-X (Attack/Fighter Experimental) was a joint USAF/USN project to produce a heavy attack aircraft with a secondary fighter role; it would have replaced the F-111 and A-6 in the attack role, and (partially) the F-14 in the fighter role. It was a short-lived programme, originating in 1991 after the cancellation of the McDonnell Douglas/General Dynamics A-12, a highly advanced, highly stealthy aircraft intended to replace the A-6. A new programme, originally designated A-X, was initiated to provide a cheaper A-6 replacement. At the same time, the NATF (Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter) programme, intended to produce an F-14 replacement, had recently been put on hold, and the USAF was starting to think seriously about an F-111 replacement. The three programmes were merged under the title A/F-X. The leading contender was the Lockheed/Boeing AFX-653, essentially a navalised version of the USAF's F-22 Advanced Tactical Fighter (see below). This would have been a two-seat aircraft with Tomcat-like swing wings, but otherwise similar to the F-22. The A/F-X project was cancelled at the end of 1993; the US Navy intends to procure the F/A-18E/F series as partial replacements for its aircraft. Lockheed and Boeing are still working on the AFX-653, and hope to offer a further developed version for whatever project replaces the A/F-X in USAF or USN planning. You can find an article on the subject, with plans of the AFX-653, in the 26-Jan-94 issue of _Flight International_. Vital statistics (AFX-653): power plant: two 113 kN Pratt & Whitney PW7000 augmented turbofans; armament: one 20mm cannon, internal bays for various air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons, including AGM-86E missiles and GBU-24 guided bombs. * Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey: The tilt-rotor programme began with Bell's XV-15 technology demonstrator. A tilt-rotor multimission aircraft was commissioned under the title JVX (Joint VTOL Experimental); the aircraft, developed jointly by Bell Helicopter Textron and Boeing Vertol, was later designated V-22 Osprey. The first prototype flew on 19 March 1989; development has been interrupted by the destruction of two of the prototypes in crashes. Despite attempts by the US Secretary of Defence to have the programme halted in favour of conventional helicopters and transport aircraft, the Osprey has survived several rounds of budget cutting, thanks mainly to lobbying by the US Marine Corps. The first production aircraft is expected to fly in December 1996. Current production plans consist of 552 MV-22A assault transports for the USMC, 50 HV-22A combat rescue aircraft for the US Navy, and 55 CV-22A special mission transports for the Special Operations Forces. The US Army's original requirement for 251 transport versions has been deferred, but not irrevocably cancelled. Japan is expected to order four search and rescue aircraft, and is considering the V-22 for the anti-submarine role. Vital statistics (MV-22A): length 19.09 m, span 14.36 m, empty weight 14463 kg, max weight 27442 kg, max speed 556 km/h, range 3892 km, payload 9072 kg; power plant: two 4586 kW Allison T406-AD-400 turboshafts. * Boeing/Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche: The LHX (Light Helicopter Experimental) programme, to provide the US Army with a light scout/attack helicopter to replace the AH-1, OH-6, and OH-56, was initiated in 1982. The original plan was to acquire 5000 helicopters, in a mixture of LHX SCAT (scout/attack) and LHX Utility versions; the latter was intended as a UH-1 replacement. The utility role was dropped, and the requirement reduced to 2096 aircraft, in 1987. Two consortia were awarded demonstration and validation contracts in October 1988, one consisting of Bell and McDonnell Douglas, the other Boeing and Sikorsky. In 1990 the programme designation was changed to LH. On 5 April 1991, the Boeing/Sikorsky team was awarded a contract for development of the LH, now designated RAH-66A Comanche. The programme has survived recent budget cuts; the first flight is scheduled for September 1994, service delivery 1997. The production total is now expected to be 1292 aircraft, of which about one third will be the RAH-66B version, carrying a slightly smaller version of the Longbow radar fitted to the AH-64D Apache. Vital statistics (RAH-66A): fuselage length 13.22 m, rotor diameter 11.90 m, empty weight 3402 kg, max weight 7790 kg, max speed 328 km/h, range 2335 km; power plant: two 690 kW LHTEC T800-LHT-800 turboshafts; armament: 20mm cannon, internal and external carriage for up to 14 Hellfire or 18 Stinger missiles. * Eurofighter: In 1982 British Aerospace began development of what was then called ACA (Agile Combat Aircraft), a fighter technology demonstrator, originally privately funded, although it later attracted some assistance from the British government. The single aircraft first flew on 8 August 1986, by which time it had been redesignated EAP (Experimental Aircraft Programme). Meanwhile, in December 1983, the air forces of France, Germany (then West Germany), Italy, Spain, and the UK announced a programme for the development of a next generation combat aircraft, designated FEFA (Future European Fighter Aircraft), based largely on the EAP demonstrator, and intended to enter service with all five countries in the mid-1990s. From the beginning the programme was dogged by political, commercial, technological, and military infighting (leading _Flight International_ columnist Roger Bacon to suggest that the acronym actually stood for Five Europeans Farting Around). Disagreement over the size of the aircraft and the production schedule led France to withdraw from the programme in July 1985 (France wanted a smaller aircraft, and postponement of production to avoid competing with Dassault's Mirage 2000). In June 1986 Eurofighter GmbH was formed to manage what was now the EFA (European Fighter Aircraft) programme, with participation by British Aerospace (33%), MBB (now DASA, 33%), Aeritalia (now Alenia, 21%), and CASA (13%). The aircraft is now known as the Eurofighter 2000; a proper name is expected to be assigned eventually. The first flight was made on 27 March 1994; production delivery is expected to begin in 1998. Orders are 250 for the UK, 165 for Italy, 100 for Spain, and probably about 100 for Germany (which originally ordered 140 but has reduced its requirement). Vital statistics (Eurofighter 2000): length 14.50 m, span 10.50 m, empty weight 9750 kg, max weight 17000 kg, max speed 1912 km/h (Mach 1.8), ferry range 1112 km; power plant: two 90.00 kN augmented turbofans; armament: 27mm cannon, AAM rail on each wingtip, 11 hardpoints. * Lockheed/Boeing F-22: The ATF (Advanced Technology Fighter) programme began in September 1983, when design contracts were awarded to seven companies; in October 1986, development contracts were awarded to two consortia, one consisting of Lockheed (prime contractor), Boeing, and General Dynamics, the other of Northrop (prime contractor) and McDonnell Douglas. The first Northrop/MD YF-23A (unofficially "Black Widow II") flew on 27 August 1990, followed by the first Lockheed/Boeing/GD YF-22A (unofficially "Lightning II") on 29 September 1990. In April 1991, the YF-22A was selected for development and eventual service. Recent budget cuts have slowed down the schedule slightly; the first flight of the production Lockheed/Boeing F-22A (General Dynamics sold its fighter division to Lockheed in December 1992), originally scheduled for June 1996, will now be in (probably) March 1997. Service entry is expected to begin in 2003; the USAF is currently fighting an attempt by the General Accounting Office to delay this to 2010. Total production, originally planned to be 648 aircraft, has now been reduced to 442. Reports differ as to whether the aircraft has an official name yet; the original "Lightning II" was soon dropped, and for a while the Pentagon was considering "Superstar", but the current favourite seems to be "Rapier", which may or may not be official. Vital statistics (YF-22A): length 18.90 m, span 13.56 m, empty weight 15422 kg, max weight 28123 kg, max speed 2655 km/h (Mach 2.5), ferry range 3704 km; power plant: two 155.68 kN Pratt & Whitney F119-100 augmented turbofans; armament: 20mm cannon; internal bays for four AIM-9 and four AIM-120 missiles; additional external hardpoints. * McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III: The USAF initiated the C-X (Cargo Experimental) programme in October 1980; McDonnell Douglas was selected as prime contractor on 19 August 1981. The C-X, later designated C-17, is primarily a C-141 replacement, with some overlap with the roles of the C-5 and C-130. The first prototype flew in September 1991. The programme has suffered many technical and political setbacks, but production has begun, although the USAF's order has been reduced from the original 210. 40 have been definitely ordered; the USAF hopes to eventually obtain 120, although this may be reduced further. 10 had been delivered by February 1994. Vital statistics (C-17A): length 53.04 m, span 52.20 m, empty weight 122016 kg, max weight 263083 kg, cruise speed 818 km/h, range 8710 km, payload 78108 kg; power plant: four 185.50 kN Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100 turbofans. * Mikoyan 1.42: Also known as MFI (Multirole Fighter-Interceptor), and sometimes referred to in the West as "ATFski", Mikoyan's Project 1.42 is a low-visibility multirole fighter, with air superiority as the primary mission, intended as an Su-27 replacement; in short, the Russian equivalent of the F-22. The 1.42 is one of the few Mikoyan projects to survive the recent wave of defence budget cuts from the Kremlin. The first airframe is reported to be already complete, but problems with the engines have delayed the first flight; Mikoyan hope to have it flying in time for the 1994 Farnborough Air Show. _Jane's Defence Weekly_ and _Flight International_ have published CAD images of the 1.42; they show an aircraft resembling a scaled-up F-16, with two engines with vectored-thrust nozzles, inward-canted twin tails, slightly downturned wingtips, Rafale-like rounded intakes, and possibly foreplanes. The 1.42, like the F-22, can carry weapons both internally and externally. It is expected to enter service about 2004 to 2006; service designation will probably be MiG-35. The related Project 7.01, a heavier and stealthier interceptor designed along similar lines, has been cancelled. The only available vital statistic is a maximum take-off weight of 30000 kilograms. * Northrop B-2 Spirit: Development of the ATB (Advanced Technology Bomber) began in 1978; the programme was revealed to the public in 1981, when Northrop's design was chosen over a Lockheed/Rockwell proposal. Although no details of the design were revealed, it was widely assumed that the aircraft would be a "flying wing" design, based on Northrop's experience with the XB-35 and YB-49, and this was confirmed when the first prototype was rolled out on 22 November 1988. It made its first flight on 17 July 1989, and the first production B-2 was delivered to the USAF in 1993. Production plans have been drastically cut from 135 aircraft to only 20. The aircraft was officially named "Spirit" in February 1994. Vital statistics (B-2A): length 21.03 m, span 52.42 m, empty weight 72575 kg, max weight 168434 kg, max speed 1103 km/h, range 13898 km, payload 22370 kg; power plant: four 84.51 kN General Electric F118-100 turbofans. * Saab JAS 39 Gripen: Development of the JAS 39 Gripen (JAS = Jakt/Attack/Spaning = Fighter/Attack/Reconnaissance; Gripen = Griffon) began in 1980. It is a light multirole fighter, intended to gradually replace all versions of the Saab 37 Viggen and Saab 35 Draken in Flygvapnet (Swedish AF) service. The first prototype flew on 9 December 1988; development has been delayed by the loss of two aircraft in crashes attributed to faults in the digital flight control software. The programme remains intact, however, and the Swedish government has confirmed its order for 140 production aircraft (including 14 two-seat JAS 39B conversion training aircraft). Saab has high hopes for export success with the Gripen; the Swedish government has agreed to a slight relaxation of the export restrictions which made the Viggen a non-starter outside Sweden. An agreement with Britain was signed in February 1994, under which British Aerospace (which assisted Saab in the design of the Gripen) will market the aircraft; BAe will probably also be involved in production. Vital statistics (JAS 39): length 14.15 m, span 8.40 m, empty weight 5800 kg, max weight 9526 kg, max speed 2336 km/h (Mach 2.2), range 600 km; power plant: one 80.50 kN Volvo Flygmotor RM12 augmented turbofan; armament: 27mm cannon, wingtip AAM rails, 6 hardpoints. * Yakovlev Yak-41 "Freestyle": Design of the Yak-41 began in 1975; the first prototype flew in March 1987, followed by a second in April 1989. Tests were conducted on the aircraft carrier _Admiral Gorshkov_. In April 1991, one of the prototypes set several records for VTOL aircraft; it was displayed at the Paris Air Show shortly afterwards. One prototype was lost in a crash (attributed to pilot error) on the carrier in November 1991, after which development was suspended (due to lack of funds rather than any problems with the aircraft); the surviving aircraft has been mothballed. Yakovlev are continuing development privately as funds allow (i.e. very slowly), and attempts have been made to attract a foreign partner (India being the most likely choice, with China another possibility), but so far there has been no sign of any agreement or progress. A more advanced version, the Yak-41M, has been designed, with the emphasis now on Air Force rather than Navy service. This version has an extensively modified airframe, with a strong emphasis on stealth (there is a distinct resemblance to the F-22), a much more powerful engine, and more fuel and payload. Finally, Yak-41 is the correct designation; Yak-141, quoted in many sources, actually refers only to the single prototype modified for record attempts, not the standard fighter. Vital statistics (Yak-41): length 18.36 m, span 10.11 m, empty weight 11650 kg, max weight 19500 kg, max speed 1800 km/h (Mach 1.7), range 2100 km; power plant: one 152.00 kN Soyuz R-97V-30 augmented turbofan, two RD-41 lift jets; armament: 30mm cannon, 5 hardpoints, max external load 2600 kg. [Most of the above information comes from recent issues of _Flight International_] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.4. Why was the YF-22 chosen over the YF-23? When the Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23 were unveiled in 1990, it was generally believed that the two companies had made different trade-offs among the various design requirements. The YF-23 appeared to be optimised for stealth, with its trapezoidal wings, butterfly tail, and generally futuristic appearance (the distinct resemblance to the fictional "Firefox" attracted a lot of comments). The YF-22, on the other hand, had a more conventional appearance; although it was obviously designed with stealth in mind, there was a definite resemblance to the F-15 it was intended to replace, and the impression was of an aircraft designed for manoeuvrability first and stealth second. The YF-22 had thrust-vectoring jet nozzles, while those of the YF-23 were designed to hide the engines' infrared signature from below. In April 1991, the YF-22 was selected for production. According to the USAF, neither aircraft showed any clear advantage in either manoeuvrability or stealth. The reasons given for the choice were that the Lockheed aircraft was better designed for maintainability, had more potential for future development, and was slightly cheaper. There remains a popular opinion that the reasons given were bogus, and that a preference for manoeuvrability over stealth was the real reason for the choice. However, there is no obvious reason why the USAF should want to lie about its reasons, and it seems likely that the external appearance of the two aircraft wasn't as good a guide to their capabilities as many people thought. [From Mike Spick & Barry Wheeler, _Modern American Fighters and Attack Aircraft_, and magazine reports] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.5. Is fighter X better than fighter Y? This is the kind of question that gets discussed all the time, but doesn't really have an answer. First, best for what? Every fighter is designed with a particular set of requirements in mind. "Fighter" is a fairly general term that covers a multitude of missions. A Tornado F.3 or a MiG-31 is an excellent long-range interceptor, but you wouldn't want to send one of them up against an F-16 or an Su-27 in a dogfight. Second, the aircraft itself isn't the only factor involved, or even the most important one. Put two aircraft of similar (or even somewhat different) capabilities up against each other, and by far the most important factor is the relative skills of the two pilots. It's widely believed that superior pilot training was the main reason why American F-86 Sabres consistently gained air superiority over technically superior Russian MiG-15s in the Korean War. Third, even apparently identical fighters can differ enormously in their electronics fit; and in modern fighters, the electronics is at least as important (not to mention expensive) as the airframe. Export versions of fighters are normally much less capable in the electronic sphere as the equivalent models for the home air force, even when the aircraft have the same designation; does anyone expect the F-16Cs exported to, say, Egypt to be anywhere near the capability of the F-16Cs in USAF service? Older aircraft can be upgraded to modern electronic standards at a fraction of the cost of new fighters, an option increasingly popular in these days of tightened defence budgets (for example, the RNZAF recently upgraded its Skyhawk fleet with a radar and avionics suite equivalent to that of the F-16A). Most of the modern generation of fighters are fairly similar in performance. Leaving out specialised interceptors such as those mentioned above, if almost any two modern fighters came up against each other in a dogfight, pilot skill would certainly be the main deciding factor. We can (and certainly will) argue endlessly about the relative merits of, say, F-16 vs Sea Harrier, or F-22 vs Su-35 (both the subject of recent discussion on this newsgroup), and there are real differences there; but such technical details are not the the most important thing in combat. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.6. Why wasn't the B-1 or B-2 used in Desert Storm? The B-1s weren't used for several reasons. First, their primary mission is (or was at the time) strategic nuclear strike; Pentagon policy was to keep them in the United States as part of the strategic triad. Second, at the time (January 1991) the B-1s had not yet been fully cleared for tactical operations with conventional weapons. Third, there was no need for them -- the aircraft already available, notably B-52s and F-117s, were perfectly capable of the required missions, and sending B-1s over wouldn't have added enough capability to be worth the extra maintenance involved. Fourth, in late 1990 most of the B-1 fleet was grounded anyway, due to engine problems. No B-2s were in service at the time; only a single prototype was flying. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.7. What's happened to the former USSR's aircraft carriers? Of the four 43000 tonne Kiev class carriers, three (_Kiev_, _Minsk_, and _Novorossiysk_) have been mothballed, leaving only one (_Admiral Gorshkov_) in service with the Northern Fleet. The Yak-38 V/STOL fighters formerly assigned to the ships have been retired; the _Gorshkov_ now carries only helicopters. The 67500 tonne _Admiral Kuznetsov_, the only conventional aircraft carrier ever operated by the Soviet Navy, remains in service with the Russian Navy's Northern Fleet. Its sister ship, _Varyag_, remains at the Nikolayev shipyard, not quite complete. Russia seems to have won the tug of war with the Ukraine over the ship's ownership. The Russian government appears to want to complete the _Varyag_ and put it on the arms market, but work seems to be currently frozen for lack of funds; whether the ship will end up completed or scrapped is anybody's guess at this point. The 75000 tonne, nuclear powered _Ulyanovsk_ was never completed; the hull has been scrapped. The _Kuznetsov_, although nominally in active service, has been used primarily for testing aircraft and operating procedures, the Russian Navy having very little experience with fixed-wing carrier operations. Its primary aircraft type is the Sukhoi Su-33 single-seat multirole fighter (production version of the Su-27K prototypes), which is currently in low-rate production. The Mikoyan MiG-29K was tested aboard _Kuznetsov_ alongside the Su-27K, but has not been selected for production. Two different naval training versions of the Sukhoi Su-25 (Su-25UBP and Su-25UTG) have been built in small numbers (about ten of each), but further construction of these has been cancelled. The _Kuznetsov_ also carries a number of Kamov Ka-27/28/29 helicopters, in various subtypes. The Yakovlev Yak-44 AEW aircraft, very similar to the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, has been selected for production, but is probably not yet in service. The AEW version of the Antonov An-72, codenamed "Madcap", was cancelled in favour of the Yak-44; the official reason given was that a turboprop was more efficient for the AEW role than a jet, although your FAQ compiler suspects that the fact that Yakovlev is a Russian company while Antonov is Ukrainian probably had something to do with it too. Assuming the _Kuznetsov_ remains in service, a strike aircraft is likely to be added to its air wing; this will almost certainly be another Su-27 derivative, since the Russian air forces currently have a policy of minimising the number of different types in service by using Su-27 derivatives wherever possible. Strike versions of the MiG-27, Su-24, and Su-25 were all tested on imitation flight decks on land bases, but none were ever developed into carrier-capable naval aircraft (the naval Su-25s were all trainers). Note that both surviving carriers serve with the Northern Fleet; it's possible that one may be transferred to the Pacific Fleet. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.8. Why do USAF aircraft have tailhooks? To help stop the aircraft in the event of brake failure, or some similar accident leading to a runway overrun. Just past the end of many military runways, you'll find an arrestor cable strung across the field. The cable (unlike those on aircraft carriers) isn't attached to anything firm; instead, each end is linked to a long chain, which just drags on the ground. The idea is to slow the aircraft down in a reasonable distance; the tailhooks on Air Force fighters are smaller and weaker than the superficially similar hooks on Navy planes. The inevitable next question, "Does this mean Air Force planes could land on a carrier in an emergency?", has been discussed at length in this newsgroup. It has been conclusively established that, no, an Air Force plane could never land on a carrier because (1) its landing gear would break in the much heavier touchdown required for carrier landings; (2) even if it could get on the deck in one piece, the weaker AF tailhook would break when it caught the Navy arrestor cable; (3) even if the aircraft was physically capable of it, Air Force pilots aren't trained in the highly specialised and difficult art of carrier landings. The F-16Ns used by the US Navy as adversaries in training have the standard Air Force tailhooks and undercarriage, and are definitely not carrier capable. The RAF pilots who learned to operate from carriers in a few weeks on the way to the Falklands are a different matter entirely; they were flying Harriers, and of course most of the above is irrelevant to VTOL aircraft. Some training was still required, of course, but the requirements are very different, both for the aircraft and the pilots. (As one Harrier pilot put it: "It's much easier to stop and then land, than to land and then try to stop.") ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.9. Is aircraft X still in service? * Blackburn Buccaneer: The last squadron of Buccaneers in RAF service was disbanded in early 1994. * Boeing B-29 Superfortress: China still has 15 Russian-built B-29 copies (Tu-4) on its inventory; these are almost certainly used entirely for training and research. One has been fitted with a pylon-mounted disk for AEW radar experiments. * Convair F-106 Delta Dart: The last aircraft in US service were retired in 1988, and were converted to QF-106 target drones. * Dassault Ouragan: El Salvador still has eight Ouragans in service. * De Havilland Vampire: There are no Vampires in military service; several are still flying in private hands. * De Havilland Venom: There are no Venoms in military service; several are still flying in private hands. * English Electric Canberra: The Canberra is still in service with Argentina, Chile, India (largest user, with 46), Peru, and the UK. The 20 aircraft on the British inventory are used largely for training, although they may still be operational in the ECM role (the RAF is secretive on this point). * Grumman S-2 Tracker: Eight countries still have S-2s in service. Many retired examples have been converted to civilian firebombers. * Handley Page Victor: The RAF retired its last Victor K.2 tanker on 30 November 1993. * Hawker Hunter: The Hunter is still in service with Chile, India, Oman, Switzerland (largest user, with 87), and the UK. Lebanon and Somalia still have a handful of Hunters listed, but these are almost certainly unserviceable. The British aircraft (about 40) are used entirely for training. * Ilyushin Il-28 ("Beagle"): The Chinese-built Hong-5 is in service in large numbers (about 650) with China, as well as North Korea and Romania, but only Egypt still operates five Russian-built Il-28s. * Lockheed F-104 Starfighter: Remains in service with Greece, Italy, Taiwan, and Turkey (largest user, with 220). * Lockheed P-2 Neptune: Japan still flies 14 of its locally-built P-2J version. * Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird: These were retired from USAF service in 1990. Three aircraft were transferred to NASA, and are used for atmospheric research. * Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star: 14 countries still use T-33s for training; the largest user is Japan, with 113. * Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 ("Fagot" and "Midget"): About 20 countries operate the MiG-15UTI (or the Chinese JJ-2) as a trainer; four (Albania, China, Cuba, and Romania) still operate the single-seat MiG-15/J-2 fighter. * Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 ("Fresco"): About 25 countries still use the MiG-17, or the Chinese-built J-5; largest user is China, with about 750 in service. * Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 ("Farmer"): Although the Chinese J-6 is still in production, and in service with 14 countries, only Cuba still flies the genuine article (about 30). * North American F-86 Sabre: The Bolivian Air Force still operates four F-86F interceptors. * North American F-100 Super Sabre: Turkey, the last operator of the F-100, disposed of its aircraft in 1989. * Sukhoi Su-7 ("Fitter" and "Moujik"): Only Algeria, Iraq, and North Korea (largest user, with 30) still fly the Su-7. * Sukhoi Su-15 ("Flagon"): This was withdrawn from Russian service about 1992. * Tupolev Tu-128 ("Fiddler"): This was withdrawn from Russian service about 1992. * Vought A-7 Corsair II: In service with Greece (largest user, with 85) and Portugal. The last A-7s in US service were withdrawn at the end of 1993. * Vought F-8 Crusader: 19 F-8E(FN) Crusaders serve with the French Navy, and are expected to remain in service until the Rafale M is available in 1999. * Yakovlev Yak-28 ("Brewer", "Firebar", and "Maestro"): The last Yak-28P "Firebar" interceptors were withdrawn in the 1980s, the last Yak-28R "Brewer-D" reconnaissance aircraft about 1990, and the last Yak-28PP "Brewer-E" electronic warfare aircraft (along with the last Yak-28U "Maestro" trainers) about 1992. * Yakovlev Yak-38 ("Forger"): The Russian Navy retired the last of its Yak-38 fleet around the end of 1993. [Most of the above comes from the "Air Forces of the World" directory in the 24-Nov-93 issue of _Flight International_] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.10. Did one of the XB-70 prototypes crash during a photo shoot? On 8 June 1966, XB-70 AV/2 (Air Vehicle 2) took part in a publicity flight involving five aircraft powered by General Electric engines, over the Mojave Desert. The aircraft were flying in a V formation; from left to right, a Northrop T-38A Talon, a McDonnell Douglas F-4B Phantom II, the XB-70, a Lockheed F-104N Starfighter, and a Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighter. Two more aircraft, a Learjet and an F-104D, carried photographers. At 9:26 a.m., just after the end of the photo session, with no warning or explanation, the F-104N's tail hit the XB-70's right wingtip. The F-104 flipped over and passed above the XB-70, slicing off parts of both of its vertical fins on the way, then rammed into its port wing several times. The XB-70 then flipped over and began spinning, spraying fuel from the ruins of its port wing. Both aircraft dived into the ground. The command pilot of AV/2, Al White (North American's test pilot), ejected and survived, although he suffered back injuries when the air bag that should have served as shock absorber on his ejection capsule failed. He said later that the other pilot, Major Carl Cross (USAF), was slumped forward in his seat; White tried to activate Cross's ejection capsule but was unable to do so before he had to eject himself. It was speculated that Cross had suffered a blow to the head, or was incapacitated by G forces. The F-104 pilot, Joseph A Walker (NASA's chief research pilot) was apparently killed in the initial collision. The collision is believed to have been caused by the F-104 getting too close to the XB-70 and getting caught in its wingtip vortices, but nobody knows for certain. The surviving XB-70, AV/1 (tail number 20001), is on display at the Air Force Museum at Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio. [Information from _Valkyrie -- North American XB-70_ by Steve Pace (thanks Dan); also thanks to Al Bowers for additional details] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.11. What's an Su-35? Formerly known as the Su-27M, the Sukhoi Su-35 is an advanced derivative of the Su-27 "Flanker". The first Su-27M prototype was displayed at the 1992 Farnborough Air Show. The Su-35 is expected to go into production in 1994; a production standard aircraft will probably appear at Farnborough '94. Changes from the Su-27 include a new radar, requiring a somewhat larger nose; foreplanes, as on the naval Su-33; more powerful engines (also originally developed for the Su-33); large ECM pods replacing the wingtip missile rails; an enlarged and improved infrared search and track unit in front of the cockpit; an infrared missile-warning scanner on the fuselage spine; numerous internal electronic improvements; and a modified tail section, with aerodynamic changes imposed by the enlarged nose. An unconfirmed rumour has it that the enlarged "spine" between the engines contains a rearward-facing air-to-air radar, allowing the use of semi-active radar guided missiles without restricting the aircraft's manoeuvres. Not present on the prototype, but expected to be incorporated into the production version, are thrust-vectoring engine nozzles. Besides being a better fighter, the Su-35 also has greatly improved ground attack capability compared to the original Su-27, which was more specialised for the air-to-air role. Other Su-27 derivatives include the Su-30 tandem two-seat ground-attack aircraft (possibly intended for the "Wild Weasel" anti-radar role, replacing the MiG-25BM), Su-33 (formerly Su-27K) carrier-borne multirole fighter, and Su-34 (formerly Su-27IB and Su-27KU) side-by-side two-seat strike aircraft (intended to replace the Su-24 in the interdiction/strike role). Vital statistics (Su-35): length 22.00 m, span 15.00 m, empty weight 18400 kg, max speed 2500 km/h (Mach 2.35), ferry range 4000 km; armament: one 30mm cannon, 10 hardpoints, max external load 8000 kg. [My main source here is Steven Zaloga's _Russian Falcons_] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.12. Why do recent articles refer to the "Lockheed F-16"? General Dynamics sold its military aircraft division to Lockheed in December 1992. Although readers of this newsgroup probably associate GD with aircraft like the F-16 and F-111, the company has always been primarily a shipbuilder, and has now decided to concentrate exclusively on this area. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 2.13. What air-to-air missiles are in service? The following list covers the air-to-air missiles known to be in service or under development, as of late 1993. Guidance types: AR = active radar, IR = infrared, Opt = optical, PR = passive radar, SAR = semi-active radar. Missile Length Mass Range Speed Warhead Guidance (m) (kg) (km) (M) (kg) ------------------------------ ------ ---- ----- ----- ------- -------- International AIM-132A ASRAAM 2.90 87 15 ? 10 IR S225X ? ? 100 ? ? AR Brazil MAA-1 Mol 2.82 90 10 2.0 12 IR China PL-2 2.99 76 3 ? 11 IR PL-3 2.99 82 3 ? 14 IR PL-5B 2.89 85 16 ? 9 IR PL-7 2.75 90 ? ? 13 IR PL-8 3.00 120 5 ? 11 IR PL-9 2.99 120 5 ? 10 IR PL-10 3.99 300 15 3.0 ? SAR France MICA AR 3.10 110 60 ? ? AR MICA IR 3.10 110 60 ? ? IR R.550 Magic 1 2.72 89 10 2.0 13 IR R.550 Magic 2 2.75 90 10 2.0 13 IR Super 530D 3.80 270 40 4.5 30 SAR Super 530F 3.54 245 35 4.5 30 SAR Germany Iris ? ? ? ? ? IR India Astra ? ? ? ? ? AR Israel Python 3 3.00 120 15 3.5 11 IR Python 4 3.00 ? ? ? ? IR Shafrir 2 2.60 93 5 ? 11 IR Italy Aspide 1 3.70 220 100 4.0 35 SAR Aspide 2 3.65 230 100 4.0 35 SAR Japan AAM-3 Type 90 2.60 70 5 ? ? IR Russia K-13A/R-13S (AA-2 Atoll) 2.84 75 8 2.5 11 IR K-13M/R-13M (AA-2-2 Atoll-D) 2.87 90 13 2.5 11 IR K-13R/R-13R (AA-2-2 Atoll-C) 3.50 93 8 2.5 11 SAR Kh-31P (AS-17 Krypton) 5.23 600 200 3.0 90 PR KS-172 RVV-L 7.40 750 400 ? ? AR R-23R (AA-7 Apex) 4.46 244 27 3.4 35 SAR R-23T (AA-7 Apex) 4.16 217 27 3.4 35 IR R-24R (AA-7 Apex) 4.46 ? ? ? ? SAR R-24T (AA-7 Apex) 4.16 ? ? ? ? IR R-27EA (AA-10 Alamo) 4.78 350 130 ? 39 AR R-27EM (AA-10 Alamo) 4.78 350 170 ? 39 SAR R-27ER (AA-10 Alamo-C) 4.78 350 130 ? 39 SAR R-27ET (AA-10 Alamo-D) 4.78 350 130 ? 39 IR R-27P (AA-10 Alamo) ? ? ? ? 39 PR R-27R (AA-10 Alamo-A) 4.08 235 60 ? 39 SAR R-27T (AA-10 Alamo-B) 3.80 245 40 ? 39 IR R-33 (AA-9 Amos) 4.15 490 120 ? 47 SAR R-37 ? 600 150 ? ? AR R-40RD (AA-6 Acrid) 5.98 461 70 4.5 38 SAR R-40TD (AA-6 Acrid) 5.98 460 30 4.5 38 IR R-60 (AA-8 Aphid) 2.14 45 7 2.5 4 IR R-60M (AA-8 Aphid) 2.14 45 ? 2.5 4 IR R-60MK (AA-8 Aphid) 2.14 45 12 2.5 4 IR R-73/R-73M1 (AA-11 Archer) 2.90 105 15 ? 7 IR R-73E/R-73M2 (AA-11 Archer) 2.90 110 30 ? 7 IR R-77 RVV-AE (AA-12) 3.60 175 90 3.0 18 AR South Africa Darter 2.75 89 10 4.2 16 IR V3B Kukri 2.94 73 4 3.9 ? IR Taiwan Sky Sword I 2.87 90 15 ? ? IR Sky Sword II 3.60 190 40 ? ? SAR United Kingdom Active Sky Flash 3.66 208 50 4.0 30 AR Sky Flash 3.66 192 50 4.0 30 SAR United States of America AIM-7M Sparrow 3.66 230 100 2.5 39 SAR AIM-7P Sparrow 3.66 230 45 ? 39 SAR AIM-7R Sparrow 3.66 ? 45 ? ? IR+SAR AIM-9J Sidewinder 3.07 78 15 2.5 ? IR AIM-9L Sidewinder 2.87 87 18 2.5 10 IR AIM-9M Sidewinder 2.87 87 8 2.5 10 IR AIM-9P Sidewinder 3.07 82 8 2.5 12 IR AIM-9R Sidewinder 2.87 87 8 2.5 10 Opt AIM-9S Sidewinder 2.87 87 8 2.5 10 IR AIM-9TC Sidewinder 3.00 84 ? ? ? IR AIM-54C Phoenix 4.30 463 200 4.0 60 AR AIM-92A Stinger 1.52 14 5 2.0 3 IR AIM-120A AMRAAM 3.65 157 75 4.0 22 AR Have Dash 3.00 180 50 3.0 ? AR+IR [Most of the information here is from Doug Richardson and Piotr Butowski's survey of AAMs in the October 1993 issue of _Air International_] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 3.1. What jet aircraft were the Germans working on during WW2? * Arado Ar 234 Blitz (Lightning): The world's first jet bomber. First flight, 15 june 1943; service entry, September 1944. The two versions to see service, the Ar 234B-1 unarmed reconnaissance aircraft and B-2 bomber, were single-seat aircraft powered by two 8.83 kN thrust Jumo 004B turbojets. The Ar 234C series, with four 7.85 kN BMW 003A-1 turbojets, never reached service, although several prototypes flew. 210 Ar 234s were completed before the end of the war; the Ar 234 was involved in the Battle of the Bulge, the destruction of the Remagen bridge, and several other battles. Plans included the Ar 234C-1 reconnaissance plane, C-2 bomber, and C-3 in bomber, ground attack, and night fighter subtypes; a C-3 variant carrying a V-1 cruise missile on its back was also planned. Other proposals included the Ar 234D (two Heinkel HeS 011A turbojets), Ar 234E (fighter based on Ar 234D), Ar 234P (night fighter), and Ar 234R (rocket engines). Vital statistics (Ar 234B-2): length 12.65 m, span 14.20 m, empty weight 5200 kg, max weight 8410 kg, max speed 742 km/h, range 1630 km; armament: two 20mm cannon, 1500 kg bomb load. * Bachem Ba 349 Natter (Viper): This was a tiny, extremely short-range rocket-powered interceptor. It was designed to be launched vertically, fire its rocket armament into a bomber formation, and then come apart in mid-air; the forward section would be thrown away, the rear section would descend by parachute to be re-used, and the pilot, released from between the two, would descend on his own parachute. The initial version, the Ba 349A, was powered by four 11.77 kN Schmidding 109-533 booster rockets and one 16.67 kN Walter 109-509A-2 sustainer rocket; 20 of this version were built, of which only one made a single manned flight. Part of the forward fuselage broke away prematurely, and the aircraft crashed, killing the pilot. There were plans for a Ba 349C with a more powerful rocket and a larger tail for better control. Vital statistics (Ba 349B): length 6.10 m, span 3.60 m, max weight 2200 kg, max speed 800 km/h, range 40 km; armament: 24 Föhn rockets. * DFS 228: High-altitude, air-launched reconnaissance aircraft with a rocket engine, in development during 1945. Claimed are a ceiling of 20000 m, a speed of 1000 km/h, and a range of 720 km -- but no DFS 228, and few documents, survived the war. * DFS 346: A 1945 design for an aircraft with two 20 kN Walter rocket engines, swept wings and a prone pilot position. It had an estimated top speed of Mach 2.6 at 30500 m. The incomplete prototype was captured by the USSR and test flown, with one of the interned B-29s as launch aircraft. * Fieseler Fi 103R Reichenberg: Basically a manned version of the V-1 (Fi 103) flying bomb (the first cruise missile). In theory, this wasn't a Kamikaze-style suicide weapon, since the pilot was intended to bail out after aiming the aircraft/missile at its target. In practice, this would have presented certain difficulties, since the cockpit was placed directly underneath the jet intake! The engine was the same one used on the V-1, one 2.94 kN As 109-014 pulse-jet. Versions planned were the Fi 103R-I and R-II training gliders, R-III powered trainer, and R-IV operational version. About 175 were built, and a few test flights were made by the R-III, but none flew operationally. Vital statistics (for the V-1; the Fi 103R-IV would have been very similar): length 7.90 m, span 5.30 m, weight 2180 kg, max speed 645 km/h, range 240 km; armament: 850 kg warhead. * Focke-Wulf Ta 183: All I know about this one is that it was selected for production in place of the Messerschmitt P-1101, and was apparently similar in design apart from having fixed wings. * Heinkel He 162 Salamander: A tiny, single-engine fighter, famous for the speed of the development programme -- the first prototype flew on 6 December 1944, less than three months after the requirement was issued! It was intended to be a "Volksjäger" (people's fighter) that could be flown by Hitler Youth volunteers after minimal training; fortunately for the youths concerned, the war ended before this plan could be put into action. 280 aircraft were completed before the end of the war (and another 800 were found in various stages of completion in the factories), but only a handful actually saw combat, in the hands of expert pilots. By all accounts the Salamander had lousy handling characteristics and was difficult for even experienced pilots to fly. Versions built were the He 162A-1 and A-2, both powered by one 7.85 kN BMW 003E-1 or E-2 turbojet (differing only in being armed with two 30mm or two 20mm cannon, respectively); proposals included the He 162B (one or two pulse-jet engines), He 162C (forward-swept wings), He 162D (swept-back wings), and various combinations of jet and rocket propulsion. Vital statistics (He 162A-2): length 9.00 m, span 7.20 m, empty weight 2180 kg, max weight 2695 kg, max speed 784 km/h, range 695 km; armament: two 20mm cannon. * Heinkel He 280: The first jet fighter to fly, the He 280 was powered by two 8.24 kN Junkers Jumo 004 turbojets. Development was delayed, and eventually abandoned in favour of the superior Me 262. Vital statistics (He 280 V6): max speed 817 km/h; armament: three 20mm cannon. * Henschel Hs 132: A dive bomber powered by a single 7.85 kN BMW 003A-1 turbojet, the Hs 132 was built along the same general lines as the He 162, with the engine mounted dorsally on the fuselage. The unique feature was a prone pilot position, intended to improve G tolerance. The factory was overrun by the Soviet Army shortly before the first flight was planned. Vital statistics: Max speed 700 km/h; armament: one 500 kg bomb. * Horten Ho IX (also known as Gotha Go 229): A flying wing fighter of futuristic and elegant appearance. It had a flat, tailless design, and was intended to be constructed mainly of wood, with special glues and lacquers to minimise radar signature -- in other words, it was the first stealth fighter! Only one prototype flew, the Ho IX V2, making its first and only powered flight in January 1945; unfortunately it crashed on landing. The prototype was powered by two 8.73 kN Jumo 004B turbojets (which would also have powered the production Go 229 versions). Production of the fighter was assigned to the Gotha factory; versions planned were the single-seat Go 229A day fighter, and the two-seat, radar-equipped Go 229B night fighter. Vital statistics (Go 229A-0): empty weight 4600 kg, max weight 7507 kg, max speed 977 km/h, range 1900 km; armament: four 30mm cannon; 2000 kg bomb load. * Horten Ho X: Single-engined flying wing fighter, basically a slightly scaled-down Ho IX. None were built. * Horten Ho XVIII "Amerika bomber": Six-engine flying wing bomber. Apart from the curved trailing edge, this design bore an amazing resemblance to the Northrop B-2. None were built, although the first prototype was under construction at the end of the war. Rumour has it this aircraft was intended to carry the German atomic bomb to America. Vital statistics: range 11900 km; armament: 3600 kg bomb load. * Junkers Ju 287: A heavy jet bomber, unusual in having forward swept wings. A single prototype flew before the end of the war (a second was completed and flown in Russia after the war). The prototype was powered by four turbojets, one under each wing and one on either side of the nose; planned versions included several different arrangements of two, four, or six engines. * Lippisch P13a: This one takes the prize (any prize). It was a ramjet-powered, sharply swept delta, with the cockpit built into the tail fin. It was powered by coal gas generated from solid fuel, and had a nominal design speed of 1650 km/h. Yes, you read that right -- a coal-powered supersonic fighter. A small rocket engine was provided for take-off. Alas, it never flew. The DM-1 glider, built along the same general lines and intended to validate the airframe design, was completed after the war and test-flown in the US; I have no idea what the results were. Vital statistics: length 6.7 m, span 6.0 m, max speed 1650 km/h (Mach 1.55; this was the original design speed, although wind tunnel tests went up to Mach 2.6), range 1240 km; armament: two cannon. * Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet: The only rocket-powered aircraft ever to enter service. First flight, early 1941; service entry, May 1944. Unusual in appearance as well as propulsion, it had a short fuselage with swept wings and no horizontal tail; despite the tailless design, it had excellent flight characteristics and was reportedly very easy to fly. Landing was a different matter, though -- the awkward centreline skid arrangement (to save weight, the wheeled trolley used for take-off was jettisoned once the plane was airborne), combined with the presence of highly volatile and explosive rocket fuel, resulted in many Komets living up to their name and ending their days as fireballs. In the air, however, the combination of tremendous speed, small size, and the element of surprise made them reasonably successful against American bomber formations, on the few occasions they entered combat. There was only one service version, the Me 163B-1, powered by one 16.67 kN Walter HWK 509A-2 liquid fuel rocket; about 370 of these saw service. Plans existed for a greatly improved version, the Me 263 (also known as the Junkers Ju 248; Junkers did much of the development work), with a new engine (16.67 kN Walter HWK 109-509C-4, with separate boost and cruise chambers, giving a 15-minute endurance), more fuel, and a real landing gear, but none were built by the end of the war. Vital statistics (Me 163B-1): length 5.69 m, span 9.30 m, empty weight 1905 kg, max weight 4110 kg, max speed 960 km/h, range 100 km; armament: two 30mm cannon. * Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe (Swallow): The first jet fighter to enter service with any country. First flight, 4 April 1941; service entry, 30 June 1944. The Me 262 was much faster and more heavily armed than the contemporary Gloster Meteor, and could have had a much greater effect on the war than it actually did if Hitler had not crippled it by insisting that it be used only as a bomber! Problems with engine development were another delaying factor. The Me 262 was also the first aircraft in service with swept wings, although this came about by accident -- a redesign of the fuselage happened to move the centre of gravity further back than had originally been intended, and the wings were angled slightly back to compensate; it was only later that it was discovered that this had fortuitously improved the aerodynamics. Variants to see service were the Me 262A-1a fighter, A-2a fighter-bomber, B-1a two-seat trainer, and B-1a/U1 radar-equipped night fighter, all powered by two 8.83 kN Junkers Jumo 004B turbojets. Although 1433 Me 262s had been delivered by VE day, shortage of fuel (and pilots) meant that only about 100 of them ever saw active service. Plans included the Me 262B-2a night fighter with enlarged fuselage carrying more fuel and Schräge Musik upward-firing cannon, and Me 262C with rocket boosters (a few prototypes flew before the war ended). Vital statistics (Me 262A-1a): length 10.60 m, span 12.50 m, empty weight 4000 kg, max weight 7045 kg, max speed 870 km/h, range 1050 km; armament: four 30mm cannon. * Messerschmitt Me 328: This was a short-lived design, powered by two 2.94 kN Argus As 014 pulse-jets and intended to be a cheap and quickly-built ground attack aircraft, with a secondary role as a day fighter. Only one prototype flew, sometime in 1944; this was enough to convince even the desperate Germans that a pulse-jet powered fighter was a Dumb Idea. Vital statistics (Me 328A-1): max speed 755 km/h; armament: two 15mm machine guns. * Messerschmitt P-1101: Jet fighter powered by one Junkers Jumo 004B turbojet, mounted in the lower forward fuselage and fed by a nose inlet, in a design similar to the post-war Yak-17 or Saab 29. The unique feature was the variable geometry wings, the first time "swing wings" had been tried on an aircraft. Only one prototype was completed before the P-1101 was cancelled in favour of the Focke-Wulf Ta 183; it was never flown during the war, but was taken back to the US and fitted with an Allison J35 turbojet. Unfortunately it was damaged in the only attempt to take off. The Bell X-5 was based on the P-1101's design, and was successfully used to investigate variable sweep. The P-1101 prototype (like the X-5) lacked true variable geometry; the sweep angle could only be adjusted on the ground, and could not be varied in flight. The cancelled production version would have had true variable sweep. * Mistel 5: This was an unmanned flying bomb, intended to carry an He 162 fighter piggyback, in the same way as the Me 109 or Fw 190 was coupled with a warhead-carrying Ju 88 in the original Mistel versions. The He 162 pilot would aim the missile at its target, then separate the two aircraft and fly his fighter back home. The unmanned component is referred to by different sources as either the Arado E-377a or the Junkers Ju 268. Power plant was two BMW 003 turbojets. This one never left the drawing board. For those interested in plastic modelling, the Dragon line of kits includes many of the above types (Ar 234B/C/C+V1, Ba 349, Fi 103, Go 229A/B, He 162, Me 163, Me 262A/B, Mistel 5, P-1101) in 1/48 or 1/72 scale; the Japanese company Mauve produce a 1/48 kit of the Lippisch P13a. Two other projects are worthy of note. The A9/A10 was a planned two-stage missile; the first stage would have been basically a scaled-up V-2, while the second stage would have been a winged skip-glide re-entry vehicle that could have carried a massive warhead (I don't know exactly how massive) to the United States. Prototype versions of the two components were tested separately, but not together; the winged rocket, with no booster, reached 4340 km/h (Mach 4.1)! There were also plans for a manned version. The Sänger-Bredt "spaceplane" was a design for a manned craft launched by a captive rocket booster on rails; the booster remained on the ground after the spaceplane separated (at about Mach 1.5!). The 100-tonne plane (of which 90 tonnes was fuel) would not reach orbit, but would attain a maximum altitude of 185 kilometres in a series of boosts and glides which would carry it all the way around the world. It was designed as a bomber, but could easily have been adapted for other purposes. An orbital version, although not officially investigated, must surely have been on the minds of the designers, Eugen Sänger and Irene Bredt. [Most of the above is from Bill Gunston's _Encyclopaedia of the World's Combat Aircraft_ and Kenneth Munson's _German War Birds_; also thanks to Steve Malikoff for further information on the Lippisch deltas, and Emmanuel Gustin for much additional information] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 4.1. What good books are there on air combat? The definitive work on air combat manoeuvring (ACM) is generally believed to be _Fighter Combat_ by Robert L Shaw (the full title is either _Fighter Combat: Tactics and Manoeuvring_ or _Fighter Combat: The Art and Science of Air-to-Air Warfare_, depending on which edition you have). The book is published by the US Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland (ISBN 1-85260-201-5). It covers a wide range of mission profiles, engagements (one-on-one to many-on-many), and weapon types. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 4.2. Where can I get a pilot's manual for aircraft X? [Can anyone help with this one?] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 4.3. What FTP sites have aircraft pictures and related material? Thanks to Emmanuel Gustin for the following: byrd.mu.wvnet.edu: Military history site. The directory /pub/history/military/airforce stores J Baugher's posts on American fighters, E Gustin's lists of military aircraft, the "Boomerang Barbara" posts, several other fact sheets, and some pictures. Other directories are worth scanning too. ftp.rutgers.edu: /pub/wwii/usaf contains part of the USAF history. harbor.ecn.purdue.edu: /pub/skunk-works contains articles, lists and pictures of Lockheed 'skunk works' aircraft. rascal.ics.utexas.edu: misc/av contains numerous aviation-related files. Includes combat-aircraft, humor-folder, aircraft-info-folder, etc. rtfm.mit.edu: Has directories /pub/usenet/rec.travel.air and /pub/usenet/sci.military. [Disclaimer: I don't have FTP access, so I haven't been able to check any of these myself] ------------------------------ ~Subject: 5.1. Where can I see surviving examples of famous aircraft? There are many museums all over the world with historic aircraft in their collections; the following are just the random sample I've assembled from posts on the newsgroup and contributions by email. Further contributions are solicited. United States: Davis-Montham AFB, Tucson, Arizona (many types) Hill AFB Museum, Utah (SR-71C, others) Pima County Air Museum, Tucson, Arizona (B-29, B-58, SR-71, YF-107) San Diego Aerospace Museum, San Diego, California (Bf 109, F-4, Spitfire, SR-71) Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, Washington, DC (many historically significant aircraft) Wright Field USAF Museum, Wrigh-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio (B-36, B-58, Fw 190, Kawanishi N1K2 Shinden, Me 262, P-75, Storch, Wright 1909 Military Flyer, XB-70, many more; probably the largest aircraft museum in the world) US Navy Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida United Kingdom: Cosford Air Museum, Wolverhampton (Avro 707, F.D.2, Hunter, Lincoln, Me 163, P.5, SR-177, TSR.2, many others) Imperial War Museum, Duxford, Cambridgeshire Imperial War Museum, Lambeth, London RAF Museum, Hendon, London Western Europe: Aviodome, Schiphol, Netherlands (many Dutch aircraft) Caproni Museum, Trento, Italy (Breda 19, Ca 6, Ca 9, Ca 100, Ca 163, Ca 193, Fokker D.VIII, others) Le Bourget, Paris, France (large collection) Military Museum, Brussels, Belgium (CF-100, Draken, F-86, Hanriot HD-1, Hurricane, MiG-15, Spad XIII, others) Musee de l'Hydravion, Biscarosse, France Museum of the Aviation Legere de l'Armee, Dax, France (mainly helicopters) Eastern Europe: Monino, Moscow, Russia (vast collection of rare and unusual Russian types, e.g. La-250, M-52, T-4, T-6, V-12, Yak-36, Ye-166, Ye-231, many others) ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.1. American aircraft designations The US Air Force (and its predecessor, the US Army Air Force) has used several aircraft designation systems in its history. The three most important are the USAAF system adopted in 1924 and used through World War II and up to 1948; the USAF system used from 1948 to 1962; and the Tri-Service system adopted in 1962 to provide a common system for USAF, US Army, and US Navy aircraft. The three systems are similar enough that they can conveniently be described together. A designation consists of a letter (or set of letters) indicating the type and mission of the aircraft, and a sequence number indicating a specific aircraft within a category, separated by a hyphen. The number may be followed by a series letter to indicate a variant of an aircraft. Most aircraft are also given a proper name, but this is not part of the formal designation. Mission codes used in the USAAF system included the following: A = Attack AT = Advanced trainer B = Bomber C = Cargo CG = Cargo glider F = Photographic reconnaissance G = Glider L = Liaison O = Observation P = Pursuit PT = Primary trainer R = Rotorcraft UC = Utility cargo The first version of a type had no series letter; the second was suffixed with "A", the third with "B", and so on. For obvious reasons, the letters "I" and "O" are skipped. For example, the B-29A is the second version of the 29th bomber aircraft identified by the USAAF. The USAF system (1948) was similar to the USAAF system; it retained the three-part code, although the series letter now started with "A" for the first version rather than the second. The mission codes were rationalised somewhat; in particular, "F" for "Fighter" replaced "P" for "Pursuit", the existing P-series aircraft being redesignated, and new aircraft receiving F-series numbers continuing the old P-series. Similarly, "H" for "Helicopter" replaced "R" for "Rotorcraft". The Tri-Service system (1962) underwent further changes, although it still retained the basic scheme of the older systems. The most important changes were that the system now included Navy aircraft as well as USAF and Army, and that most of the numeric sequences were restarted from 1, since some were now well past 100 and were becoming unwieldy. Starting from the central dash and moving *left*, the letter codes now consist of up to four letters (although only the "basic mission" code is mandatory, and I've never seen a real designation with more than three letters). (1) Vehicle type (optional; indicates something other than a conventional fixed-wing aircraft): G = Glider H = Helicopter V = VTOL or STOL Z = Lighter than air (2) Basic mission: A = Attack B = Bomber C = Cargo transport E = Special electronics F = Fighter O = Observation P = Maritime patrol R = Reconnaissance S = Anti-submarine warfare T = Trainer U = Utility X = Research (3) Modified mission (optional; indicates that a type originally designed for the mission indicated by its "basic mission" code has been modified for a different mission); includes the A, C, E, F, O, P, R, S, T, and U mission codes, plus: D = Drone control H = Search and rescue K = Tanker L = Cold weather M = Multi-mission Q = Drone V = VIP or staff transport W = Weather observation (4) Status (optional; indicates any unusual status): G = Permanently grounded J = Temporary special test N = Permanent special test X = Experimental Y = Prototype Z = Planning The sequence numbers are based on the vehicle type (if present) or the basic mission. For example, all helicopters (vehicle type "H") are numbered in a single sequence regardless of the basic mission code, while conventional aircraft (no vehicle type code) follow separate sequences for attack aircraft, bombers, transports, and so on. There are a few oddities here; for example, the AV-8 Harrier seems to have taken the number 8 slot in both the "A" and "V" sequences. The system has not been followed perfectly; exceptions include the A-37 Dragonfly (attack version of T-37 trainer; should have been AT-37), F/A-18 Hornet (should have been just F-18, or possibly AF-18), FB-111 (bomber version of the F-111; should have been BF-111), SR-71 (the letters indicate "strategic reconnaissance", not an anti-submarine modification, and the number is actually from the pre-1962 bomber series!), and a few others. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.2. US Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962) Before the adoption of the Tri-Service system in 1962, the US Navy had its own system of aircraft designations, completely different from that used by the USAAF and USAF. This consisted of up to five parts: (1) One or two letters to indicate the function. These included: A = Attack BF = Fighter-bomber DB = Dive bomber F = Fighter HC = Transport helicopter HO = Observation helicopter HU = Utility helicopter O = Observation P = Patrol PB = Patrol bomber SB = Scout bomber T = Trainer TB = Torpedo bomber U = Utility W = Airborne early warning (2) A sequence number, to distinguish between aircraft of the same function built by the same manufacturer. The number was left out if it was 1. (3) A letter to indicate the manufacturer. Because the US Navy used aircraft from considerably more than 26 different manufacturers, most of the letters of the alphabet were shared between several companies; the same company frequently used more than one letter at various times. Some of the most important manufacturers were: A = Brewster, Noorduyn B = Beechcraft, Boeing C = Cessna, Curtiss D = Douglas, McDonnell E = Cessna, Piper F = Fairchild, Grumman H = McDonnell J = North American K = Fairchild, Kaman L = Bell M = Bell, Martin O = Lockheed, Piper Q = Fairchild S = Sikorsky, Stearman T = Northrop U = Chance-Vought V = Lockheed, Vultee W = Wright Y = Consolidated, Convair (4) After a dash, a number to indicate a subtype. (5) Optionally, a letter to indicate a minor variation on a subtype. For example, the F4U was the fourth fighter designed by Chance-Vought for the US Navy. The F4U-1A was a modified version of the first subtype of the F4U. The F4U was commonly known as the Corsair, but, as with Air Force types, the name was not part of the formal designation. When the Tri-Service system was adopted in 1962, aircraft then in USN service (as well as some under development or recently retired) were redesignated under the new system. These included: Convair F2Y Sea Dart = F-7 Douglas AD Skyraider = A-1 Douglas A3D Skywarrior = A-3 Douglas A4D Skyhawk = A-4 Douglas F3D Skyknight = F-10 Douglas F4D Skyray = F-6 Grumman A2F Intruder = A-6 Grumman F9F Panther/Cougar = F-9 Grumman F11F Tiger = F-11 Grumman S2F Tracker = S-2 Grumman W2F Hawkeye = E-2 Lockheed P2V Neptune = P-2 Lockheed P3V Orion = P-3 Lockheed T2V Seastar = T-1 Martin P5M Marlin = P-5 McDonnell F2D/F2H Banshee = F-2 McDonnell F3H Demon = F-3 McDonnell F4H Phantom II = F-4 North American A3J Vigilante = A-5 North American FJ Fury = F-1 North American T2J Buckeye = T-2 Vought F8U Crusader = F-8 ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.3. USAF/USN fighters and attack aircraft A complete list of US aircraft would take up far too much space; instead, I've listed only the post-war "F" and "A" series, the ones most often asked about. One star indicates a type that existed only as one or more prototypes and never entered service; two stars indicate a type that never left the drawing board; three stars indicate that the number was never assigned at all (as far as I could determine). USAF fighter designations, since the initiation of the "F" series in 1948: F-80: Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star F-81: * Convair XF-81 (experimental mixed-power jet/turboprop fighter) F-82: North American F-82 Twin Mustang F-83: * Bell XF-83 F-84: Republic F-84 Thunderjet/Thunderstreak/RF-84 Thunderflash F-85: * McDonnell XF-85 Goblin (parasite fighter experiment) F-86: North American F-86 Sabre F-87: * Curtiss XF-87 Blackhawk F-88: * McDonnell XF-88 Voodoo F-89: Northrop F-89 Scorpion F-90: * Lockheed XF-90 F-91: * Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor F-92: * Convair XF-92 F-93: * North American YF-93 (F-86 derivative) F-94: Lockheed F-94 Starfire (F-80/T-33 derivative) F-95: North American YF-95 (redesignated F-86D) F-96: Republic YF-96 (redesignated F-84F) F-97: Lockheed YF-97 (redesignated F-94C) F-98: Hughes F-98 Falcon (air-to-air missile; redesignated GAR-1, later AIM-4) F-99: Boeing F-99 Bomarc (ground-to-air missile; redesignated IM-99, later CIM-10) F-100: North American F-100 Super Sabre F-101: McDonnell F-101 Voodoo F-102: Convair F-102 Delta Dagger F-103: ** Republic XF-103 (turbojet/ramjet hypersonic interceptor) F-104: Lockheed F-104 Starfighter F-105: Republic F-105 Thunderchief F-106: Convair F-106 Delta Dart F-107: * North American YF-107 (F-100 derivative) F-108: ** North American F-108 Rapier (long range interceptor and XB-70 escort) F-109: *** (never used) F-110: McDonnell F-110 Spectre (designation used briefly for USAF version of F4H/F-4 Phantom II) F-111: General Dynamics F-111 (the common name "Aardvark" is unofficial) F-112: ***? (may have been attached to Russian aircraft) F-113: ***? (may have been attached to Russian aircraft) F-114: ***? (may have been attached to Russian aircraft) F-115: ***? (may have been attached to Russian aircraft) F-116: ***? (may have been attached to Russian aircraft) F-117: Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk USAF/USN fighter designations, since the adoption of the Tri-Service designations in 1962: F-1: North American F-1 Fury (formerly FJ) F-2: McDonnell F-2 Banshee (formerly F2H) F-3: McDonnell F-3 Demon (formerly F3H) F-4: McDonnell F-4 Phantom II (formerly F4H) F-5: Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter/Tiger II F-6: Douglas F-6 Skyray (formerly F4D) F-7: * Convair F-7 Sea Dart (formerly F2Y) F-8: Vought F-8 Crusader (formerly F8U) F-9: Grumman F-9 Panther/Cougar (formerly F9F) F-10: Douglas F-10 Skyknight (formerly F3D) F-11: Grumman F-11 Tiger (formerly F11F) F-12: * Lockheed YF-12 (A-12/SR-71 derivative) F-13: *** (never used) F-14: Grumman F-14 Tomcat F-15: McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle F-16: General Dynamics (now Lockheed) F-16 Fighting Falcon F-17: * Northrop YF-17 Cobra (lost to F-16 in Lightweight Fighter contest) F-18: McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (YF-17 derivative) F-19: *** (never used, at least officially) F-20: * Northrop F-20 Tigershark (F-5 derivative) F-21: IAI F-21 Lion (leased Kfirs, used as Aggressors in training) F-22: Lockheed/Boeing F-22 Rapier F-23: * Northrop/McDonnell Douglas YF-23 (lost to F-22 in Advanced Technology Fighter contest) USAF/USN attack designations, since the adoption of the Tri-Service designations in 1962: A-1: Douglas A-1 Skyraider (formerly AD) A-2: * North American A-2 Savage (formerly AJ) A-3: Douglas A-3 Skywarrior (formerly A3D) A-4: Douglas A-4 Skyhawk (formerly A4D) A-5: North American A-5 Vigilante (formerly A3J) A-6: Grumman A-6 Intruder (formerly A2F) A-7: Vought A-7 Corsair II (F-8 derivative) A-8: British Aerospace/McDonnell Douglas AV-8 Harrier A-9: ** Northrop YA-9 (lost to A-10 in AX contest) A-10: Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II A-11: ***? (apparently never used) A-12: ** McDonnell Douglas A-12 (cancelled A-6 replacement) The designation A-12 for the original version of the aircraft that became the SR-71 and YF-12 was an internal Lockheed designation, not an official USAF one (the aircraft were operated by the CIA and never officially entered military service). The designation A-37 for the attack version of Cessna's T-37 was derived from the trainer version of the aircraft and was not part of the real "A" series. ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.4. American missile designations These have their own version of the Tri-Service designation system, consisting of a three-letter prefix, a dash, a series number to indicate the specific type, and a letter to indicate subtypes. Series numbers are assigned within vehicle types, so there are only two numeric series, the M-series for guided missiles and the R-series for unguided rockets. The three letters indicate (left to right): (1) Launch platform: A = Aircraft B = Multiple C = Container F = Individual G = Runway H = Silo stored L = Silo launched M = Mobile P = Soft pad R = Ship S = Space U = Underwater (2) Mission type: C = Cargo transport D = Decoy E = Electronics or communication G = Surface attack I = Interception L = Launch detection or surveillance M = Calibration or scientific research N = Navigation Q = Drone S = Space support T = Training U = Underwater attack W = Weather (3) Vehicle type: M = Missile (guided) R = Rocket (unguided) Example: AIM-9L Sidewinder. Aircraft-launched interception missile (i.e. air-to-air missile), the ninth missile to be designated since 1962, and the eleventh version of the AIM-9. As with aircraft, an official proper name is usually assigned, but is not part of the formal designation. (See 2.13 for current American air-to-air missiles) ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.5. Russian aircraft designations In the 1920s and 1930s, no particular system was used for Russian aircraft; some were identified by the initials of the designer (e.g. "ANT" for A. N. Tupolev), others received semi-official designations based on their roles, consisting of a prefix from the following list followed by a (fairly arbitrary) number (e.g. "I-16" for a fighter). A = Autogyro ARK = Arctic coastal reconnaissance B = Bomber BB = Short-range bomber BSh = Armoured attacker DAR = Long-range arctic reconnaissance DB = Long-range bomber DI = Two-seat fighter DIS = Twin-engined escort fighter G = Paratroop transport I = Interceptor (Istrebitel) KOR = Ship-borne reconnaissance M = Seaplane MA = Amphibian MBR = Short-range maritime reconnaissance MDR = Long-range maritime reconnaissance MI = Fighter seaplane MK = Armoured seaplane MP = Transport seaplane MR = Reconnaissance seaplane MTB = Maritime heavy bomber MU = Trainer seaplane P = Mailplane PB = Dive bomber PI = Single seat fighter PL = Transport PS = Mail/passenger transport R = Reconnaissance ROM = Open sea reconnaissance SB = High-speed bomber SCh = Low-level attacker SChR = Attack fighter/reconnaissance SPB = Fast dive bomber TB = Heavy bomber TSh = Heavy attack fighter U = Primary trainer UT = Basic trainer (Uchebnotrenirovochny) UTI = Fighter trainer V = Airship VI = High altitude fighter VIT = Assaulter VT = Supervised design In the early years of WW2, a systematic designation scheme was set up, based on (usually) the first two letters of the designer's name; later, as the original designers became the heads of design bureaus (OKBs), and eventually retired or died, the original initials were retained for all aircraft produced by each OKB. The full designation consists of the OKB initials, a dash, a number to indicate a particular aircraft type designed by that OKB, and optionally a letter or letters (and sometimes numbers) to indicate a subtype. Unlike the American system, subtype letters are not a simple alphabetic sequence, but are assigned arbitrarily, sometimes to indicate some particular feature of the subtype. Common suffix letters include "D" (improved), "K" (which can mean export, ground attack, or naval), "M" (modified), "P" (interceptor), "R" (reconnaissance), "T" (transport), and "U" (trainer). Originally, there was a tradition that fighters were given odd numbers, while bombers and transports were given even numbers; this has never been followed rigidly, and by now has been largely forgotten. OKB abbreviations include the following (for those still in use I've added a description of what the letters look like in the Cyrillic (Russian) alphabet, since you will often see an aircraft's designation written on it): An = Antonov (AH) Be = Beriev ([broken B] [reversed E]) Il = Ilyushin ([backwards N] [linked JI or inverted V]) Ka = Kamov (KA) La = Lavochkin M = Myasishchyev (M) Mi = Mil (M [backwards N]) MiG = Mikoyan-Gurevich (M [backwards N] [gamma]) Pe = Petlyakov Po = Polikarpov Su = Sukhoi (CY) Tu = Tupolev (TY) Yak = Yakovlev ([backwards R] K) The Lavochkin, Petlyakov, and Polikarpov OKBs were disbanded shortly after WW2; the others recently became companies in the wake of perestroika. With the breakup of the USSR, Antonov is now a Ukrainian company; the rest are Russian. Beriev has been renamed Taganrog (after the city in which the new company is based), and Mikoyan-Gurevich is now just Mikoyan, but the original abbreviations are retained in their aircraft designations. One special case is the A-50 AWACS aircraft ("Mainstay"). This was a joint venture of the Ilyushin and Beriev OKBs (providing the airframe and electronics, respectively); the A-series designation, normally used by Beriev to indicate a prototype or experimental aircraft, has been retained for the production aircraft. A few cases where confusion has reigned should be mentioned; the present climate of openness has allowed these to be settled. All Sukhoi "Flagon" versions carried Su-15 designations; the later versions were not Su-21 (which in fact referred to Sukhoi's Su-27-derived supersonic bizjet project, now abandoned). The Tupolev "Backfire" bomber is Tu-22M, not Tu-26 (this error probably arose because the first prototype was designated Tu-126). The "Fiddler", Tupolev's only production fighter, was Tu-128, not Tu-28 or Tu-102. The Yakovlev "Freestyle" V/STOL fighter is Yak-41, not Yak-141 (the latter was a single prototype modified for record attempts). ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.6. Russian aircraft codenames During the Cold War, it was common for the West to know (or suspect) that an aircraft existed in the Soviet inventory, but not know its correct designation. Even when the USSR released publicity pictures of their aircraft (or allowed Western journalists to film them flying past during displays), the aircraft's name was usually never mentioned. Because of this, a system of codenames was invented by NATO. Each type was given a name starting with B for bombers, C for cargo or passenger transports, F for fighters, H for helicopters, or M for miscellaneous (everything else). Fixed-wing aircraft received names with one syllable if they were propeller-driven, two syllables if they were jets (there is no rule for the number of syllables in a helicopter's codename). Variants were indicated by suffix letters (e.g. the fourth version of the MiG-25 "Foxbat" to be identified became "Foxbat-D"). With the modern opening up of the Russian military, it's becoming more common to refer to Russian aircraft by their real designations (now better known in the West). Some recent types haven't been given codenames, and the system seems likely to disappear altogether in the near future. Four foreign-built aircraft have been given codenames: The Czech-built Aero L-29 Delfin ("Maya"), at one time the standard Warsaw Pact jet trainer (oddly, its successor, the L-39 Albatros, was never assigned a codename); the US-built North American B-25 Mitchell ("Bank"), used by the Soviet air forces for a while after World War II; and two Chinese types (see below). Antonov An-2/3 = Colt Antonov An-8 = Camp Antonov An-10 = Cat Antonov An-12 = Cub Antonov An-14 = Clod Antonov An-22 = Cock Antonov An-24 = Coke Antonov An-26 = Curl Antonov An-28 = Cash Antonov An-30 = Clank Antonov An-32 = Cline Antonov An-72/74 = Coaler Antonov An-74AEW = Madcap Antonov An-124 = Condor Antonov An-225 = Cossack Beriev Be-2 = Mote Beriev Be-6 = Madge Beriev Be-8 = Mole Beriev Be-10 = Mallow Beriev Be-12 = Mail Beriev Be-30 = Cuff Beriev Be-40/42/44 = Mermaid Chetverikov Che-2 = Mug Ilyushin Il-2 = Bark Ilyushin Il-4 = Bob Ilyushin Il-10 = Beast Ilyushin Il-12 = Coach Ilyushin Il-14 = Crate Ilyushin Il-18/20 = Coot Ilyushin Il-28 = Beagle Ilyushin Il-28U = Mascot Ilyushin Il-38 = May Ilyushin Il-40 = Brawny Ilyushin Il-54 = Blowlamp Ilyushin Il-62 = Classic Ilyushin Il-76 = Candid Ilyushin Il-78 = Midas Ilyushin Il-86 = Camber Ilyushin/Beriev A-50 = Mainstay Kamov Ka-10 = Hat Kamov Ka-15 = Hen Kamov Ka-18 = Hog Kamov Ka-20 = Harp Kamov Ka-22 = Hoop Kamov Ka-25 = Hormone Kamov Ka-26/126/128/226 = Hoodlum Kamov Ka-27/28/29/32 = Helix Kamov Ka-50 = Hokum Lavochkin La-7 = Fin Lavochkin La-9 = Fritz Lavochkin La-11 = Fang Lavochkin La-15 = Fantail Lisunov Li-2 = Cab Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9 = Fargo Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 = Fagot Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15U = Midget Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 = Fresco Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 = Farmer Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 = Fishbed Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21U = Mongol Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23/27 = Flogger Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23-01 = Faithless Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 = Foxbat Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29/30/33 = Fulcrum Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-31 = Foxhound Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-2A = Faceplate Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-152A = Flipper Mil Mi-1 = Hare Mil Mi-2 = Hoplite Mil Mi-4 = Hound Mil Mi-6/22 = Hook Mil Mi-8/9/17/171 = Hip Mil Mi-10 = Harke Mil Mi-12 = Homer Mil Mi-14 = Haze Mil Mi-24/25/35 = Hind Mil Mi-26 = Halo Mil Mi-28 = Havoc Mil Mi-34 = Hermit Myasishchyev M-3/4 = Bison Myasishchyev M-17/55 = Mystic Myasishchyev M-50/52 = Bounder Petlyakov Pe-2 = Buck Polikarpov Po-2 = Mule Sukhoi Su-7/17/20/22 = Fitter Sukhoi Su-7U = Moujik Sukhoi Su-9/11 = Fishpot Sukhoi Su-11U = Maiden Sukhoi Su-15 = Flagon Sukhoi Su-24 = Fencer Sukhoi Su-25/28 = Frogfoot Sukhoi Su-27/30/33/34/35 = Flanker Tupolev Tu-2/6 = Bat Tupolev Tu-4/80 = Bull Tupolev Tu-10 = Frosty Tupolev Tu-14/89 = Bosun Tupolev Tu-16 = Badger Tupolev Tu-22 = Blinder Tupolev Tu-22M = Backfire Tupolev Tu-70 = Cart Tupolev Tu-82 = Butcher Tupolev Tu-85 = Barge Tupolev Tu-91 = Boot Tupolev Tu-95/142 = Bear Tupolev Tu-98 = Backfin Tupolev Tu-104 = Camel Tupolev Tu-110 = Cooker Tupolev Tu-114 = Cleat Tupolev Tu-124 = Cookpot Tupolev Tu-126 = Moss Tupolev Tu-128 = Fiddler Tupolev Tu-134 = Crusty Tupolev Tu-144 = Charger Tupolev Tu-154 = Careless Tupolev Tu-160 = Blackjack Yakovlev Yak-6/8 = Crib Yakovlev Yak-7U = Mark Yakovlev Yak-9 = Frank Yakovlev Yak-10 = Crow Yakovlev Yak-11 = Moose Yakovlev Yak-12 = Creek Yakovlev Yak-14 = Mare Yakovlev Yak-15/17 = Feather Yakovlev Yak-16 = Cork Yakovlev Yak-17U = Magnet Yakovlev Yak-18 = Max Yakovlev Yak-23 = Flora Yakovlev Yak-24 = Horse Yakovlev Yak-25/27 = Flashlight Yakovlev Yak-25RV = Mandrake Yakovlev Yak-27R = Mangrove Yakovlev Yak-28 = Brewer Yakovlev Yak-28P = Firebar Yakovlev Yak-28U = Maestro Yakovlev Yak-30 = Magnum Yakovlev Yak-32 = Mantis Yakovlev Yak-36 = Freehand Yakovlev Yak-38 = Forger Yakovlev Yak-40 = Codling Yakovlev Yak-41/141 = Freestyle Yakovlev Yak-42 = Clobber ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.7. Russian missile designations and codenames Russian rockets and missiles are mostly given designations in the R-series (guided rockets), S-series (unguided rockets), or Kh-series (this seems to be reserved for air-to-surface missiles, but I have no idea what the significance of the prefix is; "Kh" is one letter in Russian, and looks like an "X", so you will often see these designations quoted with an "X" prefix instead). NATO codenames for Russian missiles start with "A" (air to air), "G" (surface to air), "K" (air to surface), or "S" (surface to surface). In addition to the names, they are also given designations consisting of a two-letter code for the mission type ("AA", "AS", "SA", or "SS", plus some special codes such as "AT" for "anti-tank"), an "N" for naval missiles, and a number. (See 2.13 for current Russian air-to-air missiles) ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.8. British aircraft designations Unlike the US system, the proper name is the principal part of an aircraft's formal designation in British service. The full designation consists of the name, a letter or set of letters indicating the role, and a mark number; in a few cases the mark number is followed by a letter indicating a modification. The full designation is written as, for example, "Tornado GR.1A", or sometimes "Tornado GR Mk 1A". For export versions, the role letters are usually left out, and the mark numbers are restarted from a high number, usually 50 (for example, the Indian Navy's Sea Harriers are Mk 51). Before WW2, mark numbers alone were used, and were written in Roman numerals; during the war, the role letters were added, and conventional numerals were used for mark numbers above 20. The Roman numerals were dropped altogether after the war; apart from that, the system has remained largely unchanged. Role letters (an asterisk indicates an obsolete code): AEW = Airborne early warning AH = Army helicopter AL = Army liaison AS = Anti-submarine (*) B = Bomber B(I) = Bomber/interdictor B(K) = Bomber/tanker B(PR) = Bomber/photo-reconnaissance C = Cargo transport CC = Communications (also used for VIP transports) E = Electronic warfare F = Fighter FAW = All-weather fighter (*) FB = Fighter/bomber (*) FG = Fighter/ground attack FGA = Fighter/ground attack FGR = Fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance FR = Fighter/reconnaissance FRS = Fighter/reconnaissance/strike GA = Ground attack GR = Ground attack/reconnaissance HAR = Search and rescue helicopter HAS = Anti-submarine helicopter HC = Cargo helicopter HCC = Communications helicopter (also used for VIP transports) HT = Training helicopter HU = Utility helicopter K = Tanker KC = Tanker/transport Met = Weather reconnaissance (*) MR = Maritime reconnaissance NF = Night fighter (*) PR = Photographic reconnaissance R = Reconnaissance S = Strike SR = Strategic reconnaissance T = Trainer TF = Torpedo fighter (*) TT = Target tug U = Unmanned drone W = Weather reconnaissance ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.9. Canadian aircraft designations The Canadian designation system is based on a simplified version of the American system. A designation consists of the letter "C" (for Canadian), a letter to indicate the aircraft's role, a dash, and a number, sometimes followed by a letter to indicate a modification (usually "A" for a modified version, or "D" for a dual-control trainer). The numbers are assigned in a single sequence for all types in Canadian service, and are always over 100. This has led to a few aircraft having a real designation that differs from the one they're commonly known by; for example, the F-5 and FA-18 in Canadian service are usually referred to as the CF-5 and CF-18, but the correct designations are CF-116 and CF-188, respectively. Role letters: C = Cargo transport F = Fighter H = Helicopter P = Maritime patrol T = Trainer Types in current Canadian service: CC-109 Cosmopolitan = Convair 440 CH-113 Labrador = Boeing CH-46 Sea Knight CT-114 Tutor = Canadair Tutor CC-115 Buffalo = De Havilland Canada DHC-5 CF-116 = Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighter CH-118 Iroquois = Bell UH-1 CH-124 Sea King = Sikorsky SH-3 CC-130 Hercules = Lockheed C-130 CT-133 Silver Star = Lockheed T-33 CH-135 = Bell 212 CH-136 Kiowa = Bell OH-58 CC-137 = Boeing 707 CC-138 Twin Otter = De Havilland Canada DHC-6 CH-139 Jetranger = Bell 206 CP-140 Aurora/Arcturus = Lockheed P-3 Orion derivative CC-142/CT-142 = De Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8 CC-144 Challenger = Canadair Challenger CH-146 = Bell 412 CC-150 Polaris = Airbus A310 CF-188 Hornet = McDonnell Douglas FA-18 ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.10. Chinese aircraft designations Chinese aircraft use a fairly simple system consisting of a letter or letters to indicate the role, a dash, and a number, sometimes followed by additional letters or numbers to indicate subtypes. The role letters are often replaced by their English equivalents for export versions (for example, the export version of the Q-5 is the A-5). The numeric sequences always start with 5. Oddly enough for the last bastion of Communism, this is the result of superstition; 4 is considered an unlucky number in China (because the Chinese words for "four" and "death" are very similar). The designation "J-2" for the licence-built MiG-15 is an exception, probably allocated retrospectively, after the Chinese and Soviet governments parted ways. Role letters include: CJ = Chujiao (basic trainer; PT for export) H = Hong (bomber; B for export) J = Jian (fighter; F for export) JJ = Jianjiao (fighter/trainer; FT for export) Q = Qiang (attack; A for export) SH = Shuihong (maritime bomber; PS for export) Y = Yun (transport) Z = Zhi (vertical, i.e. helicopter) Many Russian, and more recently Western, aircraft have been manufactured in China and given Chinese designations. These include: CJ-5 = Yakovlev Yak-18 H-5 = Ilyushin Il-28 H-6 = Tupolev Tu-16 J-2 = Mikoyan MiG-15 J-5 = Mikoyan MiG-17 J-6 = Mikoyan MiG-19 J-7 = Mikoyan MiG-21 Y-5 = Antonov An-2 Y-7 = Antonov An-24/26 Y-8 = Antonov An-12 Z-5 = Mil Mi-4 Z-8 = Aérospatiale AS.321 Super Frelon Z-9 = Aérospatiale AS.365 Dauphin 2 Two Chinese aircraft have been given NATO codenames: J-8 "Finback" and Q-5 "Fantan". ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.11. German aircraft designations (WW2) German aircraft were identified by two letters denoting the manufacturing company, a number denoting the aircraft type (separated from the letters by a space), and various modifiers for subtypes. Manufacturer codes: Ar = Arado Ba = Bachem Bf = Messerschmitt Bü = Bücker Bv = Blohm und Voss Do = Dornier Fa = Focke-Achgelis Fi = Fieseler Fl = Flettner Fw = Focke-Wulf Go = Gotha Ha = Blohm und Voss He = Heinkel Ho = Horten Hs = Henschel Ju = Junkers Me = Messerschmitt Ta = Focke-Wulf "Bf" for Messerschmitt came from Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, the company's name before Willy Messerschmitt took over; "Ha" for Blohm und Voss came from Hamburger Flugzeugbau, the name of the aircraft division of the Blohm und Voss shipbuilding company; "Ta" for Focke-Wulf was used in honour of designer Kurt Tank. Type numbers were assigned by the RLM (air ministry); a single sequence was used for all manufacturers. Related types were often given numbers differing by 100; for example, the Messerschmitt Me 210 was designed as a replacement for the Bf 110, and was developed into the Me 310 (abandoned before flight) and Me 410. Prototype aircraft had a "V" followed by a number identifying individual aircraft, separated from the main designation by a space (e.g. Me 262 V1). Major variants were denoted by a letter immediately following the type number (e.g. Me 262A), minor variants by a number separated from the major variant letter by a dash (e.g. Me 262A-1). Pre-production aircraft had a zero in this position (e.g. Me 262A-0). Further variations on a subtype could be denoted by a lower case letter attached to the variant number (e.g. Me 262A-1a), or by "/U" and a number (e.g. Me 262A-1a/U5). ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.12. Japanese aircraft designations and codenames (WW2) Japanese aircraft designations are a highly confusing subject, since four different systems were in use simultaneously in Japan, in addition to the codenames used by the Allies. The Japanese Army and Navy each used two systems to identify the same aircraft, so a type used by both services (there were a few) could theoretically have up to five different designations -- Japanese Army Kitai number, Army type number, Navy designation code, Navy type number, and Allied codename! Just to confuse matters a bit further, a few types were known best by nicknames that had no official status. The Mitsubishi A6M fighter, also known as the Carrier-Borne Fighter Type 0, had the official Allied codename of "Zeke"; but it went down in history under the unofficial nickname used by both sides: "Zero". The Japanese Army Air Force identified aircraft by "Kitai" (airframe) numbers, which simply consisted of "Ki", a dash, and a number. Originally the numbers were a simple numeric sequence; later, some randomisation was added, as a security measure. Gliders received "Ku" ("Guraida") numbers instead. Subtypes or variants were indicated by Roman numeral suffixes, or by various Japanese abbreviations (a common one was "Kai" (for "Kaizo"), indicating a major modification). In addition to Kitai numbers, most Army aircraft also received a second designation in a parallel system based on role and the year of entry into service. Originally this was the last two digits of the year; 100 was used for the Japanese year 2600 (1940), then the numbers were restarted from 1. Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft received a designation code very similar to those used by the US Navy. This consisted of a letter to indicate the aircraft's function, a sequential number to indicate a specific aircraft type (unlike the USN system, the number 1 was left in), and a letter to indicate the manufacturing company. This was followed by a dash and a number to indicate a subtype, plus an optional letter or letters for further variations. Function letters: A = Carrier-borne fighter B = Carrier-borne torpedo bomber C = Carrier-borne reconnaissance D = Carrier-borne dive bomber E = Reconnaissance seaplane F = Observation seaplane G = Land-based bomber H = Flying-boat J = Land-based fighter K = Trainer L = Transport M = Special-purpose seaplane N = Fighter seaplane P = Bomber Q = Patrol R = Land-based reconnaissance S = Night fighter Manufacturer letters: A = Aichi K = Kawanishi M = Mitsubishi N = Nakajima V = Seversky W = Kyushu, Watanabe Y = Yokosuka The IJN also used a parallel system based on role description and year number, similar to (but independent of) the Army's, except that the year 2600 (1940) became 0 instead of 100. This system was abandoned in 1943, when it was decided that revealing the year of an aircraft's entry into service might give useful information to the enemy. Aircraft were then given proper names instead. Because the correct designations of Japanese aircraft were often not known (and, as you've probably gathered by now, difficult to keep straight anyway), the Allies assigned codenames to them. The basic rules for these, not always followed, were: Bombers, dive bombers, reconnaissance aircraft, seaplanes, torpedo bombers -- Girls' names Fighters, reconnaissance seaplanes -- Boys' names Gliders -- Names of birds Trainers -- Names of trees Transport aircraft -- Girls' names beginning with "T" The following list gives various designations for some of the more important Japanese aircraft of WW2: Aichi D3A = Navy Type 99 Carrier-Borne Fighter = Val Kawanishi H8K = Navy Type 2 Flying-Boat = Emily Kawanishi N1K1/2 Shinden = George Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu = Navy Type 2 Heavy Fighter = Nick Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien = Navy Type 3 Fighter = Tony Kawasaki Ki-100 = Navy Type 5 Fighter Kyofu N1K = Rex Mitsubishi A5M = Navy Type 96 Carrier-Borne Fighter = Claude Mitsubishi A6M = Navy Type 0 Carrier-Borne Fighter = Zeke Mitsubishi F1M = Navy Type 0 Observation Seaplane = Pete Mitsubishi G4M = Navy Type 1 Attack Bomber = Betty Mitsubishi J2M Raiden = Jack Mitsubishi Ki-15 Karigane = C5M = Babs Mitsubishi Ki-21 = Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber = Sally Mitsubishi Ki-30 = Army Type 97 Light Bomber = Ann Mitsubishi Ki-46 Shitei = Army Type 100 Reconnaissance Aircraft = Dinah Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu = Army Type 4 Heavy Bomber = Peggy Nakajima B5N = Navy Type 97 Carrier-Borne Bomber = Kate Nakajima B6N Tenzan = Jill Nakajima J1N Gekko = Irving Nakajima Ki-27 = Army Type 97 Fighter = Nate Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa = Army Type 1 Fighter = Oscar Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki = Army Type 2 Fighter = Tojo Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu = Army Type 100 Heavy Bomber = Helen Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate = Army Type 4 Fighter = Frank Yokosuka D4Y Suisei = Judy Yokosuka P1Y Ginga = Frances ------------------------------ ~Subject: 6.13. Swedish aircraft designations The aircraft designations used by the Swedish armed forces consist of a set of letters to indicate the role, and a number to indicate an aircraft type, with a space between them. A letter may be added after the number to indicate subtypes. The numbers are assigned in a single sequence for all types of aircraft. The same number is always used for the same basic aircraft type, but the prefix may be changed to indicate different roles. Role codes (these may be combined, e.g. "JA" for fighter/attack): A = Attack B = Bomb Fpl = Flygplan (aeroplane; used for multirole light aircraft) Hkp = Helikopter J = Jakt (fighter) S = Spaning (reconnaissance) SF = Spaning foto (photographic reconnaissance) SH = Spaning havsövervakning (maritime reconnaissance) Sk = Skol (trainer) T = Torped (torpedo bomber) (obsolete) Tp = Transport The following types are currently in Swedish service: Hkp 3 = Agusta/Bell AB-204 Iroquois Hkp 4 = Boeing/Kawasaki KV-107 Sea Knight Hkp 5 = Schweizer (Hughes) 300 Hkp 6 = Agusta/Bell AB-206 Jetranger Hkp 9 = MBB BO 105 Hkp 10 = Aérospatiale AS.332 Super Puma J 32 = Saab Lansen J/Sk 35 = Saab Draken AJ/AJS/JA/SF/SH/Sk 37 = Saab Viggen JAS 39 = Saab Gripen Sk 50 = Saab Safir Fpl 53 = Dornier 27 Tp 54 = Piper PA-31 Navajo Sk 60 = Saab 105 Fpl/Sk 61 = BAe Bulldog Tp 84 = Lockheed C-130 Hercules Tp 86 = Rockwell Sabreliner Tp 88 = Fairchild Metro SH 89 = CASA C-212 Aviocar Tp 100 = Saab 340 Tp 101 = Beech Super King Air Tp 102 = Gulfstream IV ------------------------------ ~Subject: 7.1. Reference books This is not intended to be a general list of reference books on military aviation; it's simply a list of most of the books I found useful in compiling this FAQ list. I've quoted ISBN numbers where I could find them, but you'd be amazed how many books fail to display one. I assume Jane's Planes has a new ISBN each year; the one quoted here is the 1990-91 edition, the latest available to me. Roy Braybrook, S Skrynnikov & L Yakutin (1993): _Russian Warriors: Sukhois, MiGs and Tupolevs_ (Osprey Aerospace, UK; ISBN1-85532-293-5) Piotr Butowski (1992): _Military Aircraft of Eastern Europe: (1) Fighters and Interceptors_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-028-9) Piotr Butowski (1992): _Military Aircraft of Eastern Europe: (2) Bombers and Attack Aircraft_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-035-1) David Donald & Robert F Dorr (1990): _Fighters of the United States Air Force_ (Military Press, USA; ISBN 0-517-66994-3) Marcus Fülber (1993): _Red Stars Over Europe_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-709-7) Yefim Gordon & Bill Sweetman (1992): _Soviet X-Planes_ (Motorbooks International, USA; ISBN 0-87938-498-0) Bill Gunston (1976): _The Encyclopaedia of the World's Combat Aircraft_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN unknown) Bill Gunston (1981): _Military Helicopters_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-110-4) Bill Gunston (1983): _Modern Airborne Missiles_ (Lansdowne Press, Australia; ISBN 0-7018-1705-4) Bill Gunston (1987): _Modern Fighters and Attack Aircraft_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-320-4) Bill Gunston (1987): _The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Aircraft Armament_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-314-X) Bill Gunston (1988): _Combat Arms: Modern Fighters_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-413-8) Bill Gunston (1989): _Combat Arms: Modern Attack Aircraft_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-451-0) Bill Gunston & Mike Spick (1983): _Modern Air Combat_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN unknown) Bill Gunston & Mike Spick (1986): _Modern Fighting Helicopters_ (Tiger Books, UK; ISBN 1-85501-164-6) Mark Lambert, ed (annual): _Jane's All the World's Aircraft_ (Jane's Publishing, UK; ISBN 0-7106-0908-6) Chris Marshall, ed (1988): _The Defenders_ (Oriole Publishing, UK; ISBN 1-870318-10-2) R A Mason & John W R Taylor (1986): _Aircraft, Strategy and operations of the Soviet Air Force_ (Jane's Publishing, UK; ISBN 0-7106-0373-8) Doug Richardson (1989): _Stealth Warplanes_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN unknown) Mike Spick (1987): _Modern Fighter Combat_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-319-0) Mike Spick & Tim Ripley (1992): _Modern Attack Aircraft_ (Smithmark Publishers, USA; ISBN 0-8317-5054-5) Mike Spick & Barry Wheeler (1992): _Modern Aircraft Markings_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-695-5) Mike Spick & Barry Wheeler (1992): _Modern American Fighters and Attack Aircraft_ (Salamander Books, UK; ISBN 0-86101-696-3) Bill Sweetman (1989): _Stealth Bomber_ (Airlife Publishing, UK; ISBN 1-85310-097-8) Bill Sweetman (1993): _Aurora_ (Motorbooks International, USA; ISBN 0-87938-780-7) Michael J H Taylor (1983): _Military Prototypes of the 1950s_ (Arms and Armour Press; UK; ISBN 0-85368-579-7) Michael Taylor (1987): _Encyclopaedia of Modern Military Aircraft_ (Bison Books, UK; ISBN 0-86124-349-8) Masami Tokoi (1990): _Soviet Military Aircraft in Monino_ (Dai Nippon Kaiga, Japan; ISBN 4-499-20561-1) Steven J Zaloga (1991): _Modern Soviet Warplanes: Fighters and Interceptors_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-014-9) Steven J Zaloga (1991): _Modern Soviet Warplanes: Strike Aircraft and Attack Helicopters_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-015-7) Steven J Zaloga (1992): _Russian Falcons_ (Concord Publications, Hong Kong; ISBN 962-361-707-0) ------------------------------ ~Subject: 7.2. Magazines As with the list of reference books, these are the magazines whose articles I found useful in compiling these answers. _Air Forces Monthly_ (Key Publishing, UK; monthly) _Air International_ (Key Publishing, UK; monthly) _Flight International_ (Reed Business Publishing, UK; weekly) ------------------------------ ~Subject: 7.3. Acknowledgements Thanks to the following people for their help: Dan (danr@cup.portal.com) Al Bowers (ak954@yfn.ysu.edu) Martin Briscoe (martin.briscoe@almac.co.uk) Dwight Brown (stainles@ghostwheel.bga.com) Dave Cherkus (cherkus@unimaster.com) Urban Fredriksson (urf@icl.se) Emmanuel Gustin (gustin@evsds.uia.ac.be) Cal Jewell (jewell@data-io.com) Paul Kennedy (paulk@brt.com) Steven Malikoff (steven@syacus.acus.oz.au) Chris Neary (cmn1@pge.com) ------------------------------ Ross Smith (Wanganui, New Zealand) ... avfaq@acheron.amigans.gen.nz GCS/S d? p c++++ l u-- e- m---(*) s+/++ n--- h+ f g+ w+ t+(-) r+ y? Keeper of the FAQ for rec.aviation.military "I never had the hots for mud-moving, puts you too close to the ground and all those pissed-off guys with guns." (Jeff Crowell) **E-O-F**