Environment And Development (E & D) File 1992 Briefings for NGOs on UNCED No. 26 May 1992 PUBLISHED BY: UNITED NATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL LIAISON SERVICE ngls@igc.org +------------------------------------------------------------------+ BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY *** Biological Diversity *** Biological diversity (biodiversity) is the variey of life on planet Earth, including its plants, animals and micro-organisms. It re- fers to the different species and to the gene variation, as well as the ecosystems which they form within the environment. So far there are approximately 1.4 million known species on earth and new ones are continually being identified. But there are also many which are being lost, and the rate of loss is increasing. Biolog- ical diversity varies in different parts of the globe; it is great- est in the warmer and wetter regions. The largest number of species are to be found in the tropical forests. Our planet's essential goods and services depend on the variety and variability of genes, species, populations and ecosystems. Biological resources feed and clothe us and provide housing, medicines and spiritual nourishment. The natural ecosystems of forests, savannahs, pastures and rangelands, deserts, tundras, rivers, lakes and seas contain most of the Earth's biodiversity. Farmers' fields and gardens are also of great importance as re- positories, while gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos and other germplasm repositories make a small but significant contrib- ution. The current decline in biodiversity is largely the re- sult of human activity and represents a serious threat to human development. - UNCED Document, A/Conf.151/PC/WG.I/L.44 Biodiversity is of crucial importance in the environment and this is manifested in the roles of plants and animals in the ecosystems. The diversity of genes, species and ecosystems is of great value to humankind. Plants and animals provide resources such as food, fibres and medicines while genetic variation is important for the breeding of new and improved varieties and for future developments in biotechnology. The richness of biodiversity is particularly crucial to indigenous peoples, whose livelihood and culture is greatly affected by its loss, and whose traditional knowledge and practices are invaluable to its preservation. Women, too, play a significant role in biodiversity management and are also partic- ularly important in passing on their invaluable knowledge of local natural resources to their children. The rapid loss of biological diversity has taken place as a result of exploitation of biological resources and the destruction of habitats by humankind. Human activities such as unlimited hunting and fishing can lead to over-exploitation and extinction, and the rarer the species the greater its commercial value. In agriculture, modern farming methods lead to concentration on fewer varieties. The loss of areas of tropical forests which are cleared for agriculture and settlement as well as being exploited for commercial logging is also a threat. Biodiversity has also been affected by industrial development which has resulted in the production of wastes harmful to living organisms. It is therefore vital to slow the loss of biodiversity and to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. There are two approaches to the protection and conservation of biodiversity. The in situ approach allows the living organisms to remain in their natural habitats and includes the establishing of protected areas and effective management of ecosystems. The ex situ approach is concerned with the protection of living organisms outside their natural habitat in human-altered ecosystems such as zoos and botanical gardens and germplasm banks containing seeds and tissues. In situ protected areas are recognised as an effective means of conserving biological diversity, not only preserving species and genetic diversity but also maintaining eco- systems and preserving natural landscapes and wildlife. In this way there are opportunities for scientific research, education, and recreation and tourism and the maintenance of traditional means of production. At times, however, setting aside protected areas for research or preservation purposes leads to the disruption of traditional land uses and economic activities in local communities. There has been a significant increase in the number of protected areas since 1972, but the rate has shown signs of slowing. At present, protected areas account for almost five per cent of the earth's land surface. Ex situ methods are a means of protecting endangered species and are used for plant introduction which can be of great benefit, for example, in forestry. Ex situ preservation has the disadvantage of creating static environ- ments where species and genes do not continue to develop and adapt as they would in a natural environment. Developing countries are also wary of the centralised control over resources which is made possible by ex situ collections, particularly if patents become more common and strictly enforced. International activities concerned with the protection of biodiversity include monitoring systems such as the Global Envi- ronment Monitoring System (GEMS) of the United Nations Envi- ronment Programme (UNEP). A system for information and early warning on genetic resources is being developed by the Food and Ag- riculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) together with the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, and a global system for the study and monitoring of biodiversity is to be included in the International Geosphere/Biosphere Programme formulated by the International Council of Scientific Unions. International agreements related to biodiversity include the Con- vention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES 1973), the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar 1971), the Con- vention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979) and the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972). Another international effort has been the Debt-for-Nature Swaps initiated by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), which assists developing countries to repay a portion of their debt in return for agreed conservation programmes. These swaps are controversial because they limit a country's con- trol over its resources and to date have made a minimal contrib- ution to resolving the debt problem. *** Convention on Biological Diversity *** It is hoped that the Convention on Biological Diversity, which has as its objectives to conserve the maximum possible diversity for the benefit of present and future generations and for its intrinsic value, will be ready for signing at UNCED in June. The process towards the preparation of a draft convention started in 1988, when UNEP, in cooperation with others including, FAO, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and WWF, established an ad hoc working group of experts to investigate the desirability of, and the forum for, an umbrella convention. In November 1990, UNEP convened the first meeting of the ad hoc Working Group of Legal and Technical Experts to discuss issues for possible inclusion in a global framework legal instrument. In 1991 the International Negotiating Committee (INC) was established with two working groups; one concerned with objectives, principles, obligations and measures, and the other with technology transfer and funding. Since then the INC has met on three occasions to discuss the Draft Convention and the final negotiating session is to take place in Nairobi from 11-19 May 1992 (see E & D Files Nos. 16, 19, 21 and 24 for reports on INC meetings). *** Biological Diversity in UNCED's Agenda 21 *** The objectives and activities for biodiversity as set out in Agenda 21 are intended to support the Draft Convention on Biological Di- versity which is still being negotiated. The proposed activities are included in one programme area - Conservation of biological di- versity - which recognises the importance of collaboration with indigenous peoples in safeguarding bio-diversity. It is recom- mended that governments together with other relevant organizations support the Convention on Biological Diversity and develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. It is also emphasised that countries should take appro- priate measures to share the benefits derived from research between the resource-rich countries (mainly in the South) and the countries who use the resources (mainly in the North). Specific activities include conservation by means of in situ and ex situ measures, long-term research into relevant areas including social behaviour, and appro- priate environmental impact assessments for projects likely to affect biodiversity. For developing countries a key issue has been the question of sov- ereignty. The Preamble of Agenda 21 stresses that States have the sovereign right to exploit their own biological resources and that they have a responsibility to conserve their biodiversity and to use their biological resources sustainably. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | In spite of the immeasurable contribution that Third World | | biodiversity has made to the wealth of industrialised | | countries, corporations, governments and aid agencies of the | | North continue to create legal and political frameworks to make | | the Third World pay for what it originally gave. | | | | - Vandana Shiva, | | Technology and Natural Resource Policy (India), | | writing for Third World Network | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ There are close links between biodiversity and other programmes of Agenda 21, especially those concerned primarily with ecosystems and living organisms. There are links with relevant aspects of biotechnology in particular in relation to genetic resources, for example, with forests which contain such a large number of species. In the areas of oceans and freshwater there is concern over threat- ened habitats such as coral reefs and wetlands and, in regard to land resources, the diversity of soil organisms plays an important function in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Biodiversity is linked with the atmosphere, in that climate change has an impact on species and ecosystems, and because forests serve as 'carbon sinks' by absorbing gases which lead to climate change. With regard to links with development issues, there is the need to consider the threat to people's livelihoods posed by the loss of biodiversity and vice versa. There is also a strong link to environmental edu- cation, as the study of bio- diversity often forms the starting point of environmental education. *** The Global Biodiversity Strategy *** The Global Biodiversity Strategy, which was published in February 1992, has been drawn up jointly by the World Resources Institute (WRI), IUCN and UNEP in consultation with FAO and the United Na- tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It provides a framework for action to stem the loss of the world's biotic wealth and mobilise its potential for the benefit of present and future generations. It is designed to complement the conven- tion on biological diversity and UNCED's Agenda 21, and looks to- wards the activities needed at local, national and international levels to ensure wise management of bio- logical resources in the 21st Century. The Strategy consists of three elements: saving biodiversity by protecting genes, species and ecosystems; studying biodiversity by documenting, understanding and awareness-building; and using biodiversity sustainably and equitably to ensure that biological resources last indefinitely for human benefit. The five objectives are: o The development of national and international policy frameworks that foster the sustainable use of biological resources and the maintainence of biodiversity; o The creation of conditions and incentives for effective conser- vation by local communities; o Strengthening and broader application of the tools for conserv- ing biodiversity; o Strengthening human capacity for conserving and using biodiversity sustainably, particularly in developing countries; o Catalysing conservation action through international cooper- ation and national planning. The Strategy proposes 85 activities including five key catalytic actions that can be taken quickly and at low cost, and which can trigger action, mobilise funding, build awareness and ensure broader dialogue and participation. These are: o The adoption, in 1992, of the international Convention on Bi- ological Diversity currently being negotiated; o Consideration by the General Assembly of the United Nations of the designation of 1994-2003 as the International Biodiversity Decade; o The immediate creation of a mechanism such as an International Panel on Biodiversity Conservation, composed of government rep- resentatives, scientists, citizen groups, industry, UN organ- izations and non-governmental organizations to ensure broad participation in international decisions concerning biodiversity; o The establishment of an Early Warning Network - which will again need to be appropriately linked to the Convention on Bi- ological Diversity - to monitor urgent threats to biodiversity and to mobilise action against them; o The integration of biodiversity conservation into national planning processes to enable necessary action to be taken at the national level. *** Biotechnology *** Biotechnology refers to technologies which use living organisms or parts of living organisms to modify existing life forms and also for the application of biological organisms in industry. These technologies include traditional technologies such as the use of microbes in brewing and other processes and the selection of seeds throughout the history of human agricultural production, as well as more recent technologies involving cell transfer, tissue culture and genetic engineering. Understanding that biotech- nology includes any use of technology on living organisms is impor- tant in acknowledging the contributions that have been made to bio- technology by people in developing countries. Biotechnology has already brought a number of benefits in partic- ular in the fields of medicine and food production. People and an- imals have for a long time benefitted from the use of new vaccines, and it is likely that there will be vaccines available for pro- tection against more diseases, including parasitic diseases. Fur- ther benefits from biotechnology are likely to provide advances in diagnostics and in the use of gene therapy for inherited diseases. The development and use of biotechnology for medical purposes has not been without incident, however. In 1986, for example, it was found that an institute based in a developed country had been test- ing bio-engineered rabies vaccine on cattle in a developing country without the consent or knowledge of the latter country. Once dis- covered, the project was immediately terminated but, according to the local ministry of health, farm hands had already been infected by the live vaccine. In agriculture, where selective breeding of crops and animals for greater food production has long been practised, new technologies allow the breeding of plants which contain their own pesticide and which are resistant to weed killers, and the use of hormones to in- crease milk yields. Food production can also be increased by the use of biotechnology in fish farms. There are also possibilities for using biotechnology for improving the environment as, for exam- ple, in reforestation through the use of specially bred fast- growing trees and propagation by tissue culture, and in the treatment of waste and the conversion of biomass to a useable fuel. As with the medical applications of biotech- nology, agricultural biotechnologies also contain dangers. One example is the case of 'ice-minus', a bacterium which can be sprayed on plants to make them more resistant to frost. In 1983 'ice-minus' was to become the first genetically modified organism to be released into the en- vironment. The project, however, was halted by a public outcry from people who criticised the insufficient safety testing of the bacteria and feared the potential effects on the local climate should it get into the atmosphere. Recent applications of biotechnology in agriculture have also lead to an increasing degree of concentration in the gene pool of commonly grown crops. This concentration makes crops more susceptible to disease and has, in some disastrous cases, resulted in huge and costly losses. While there are advantages to be gained from the use of biotechnology, there are equally evident dangers. Any change in balance within the ecosystem is irreversible; a well-known example of this is the introduction of rabbits into Australia. There is particular concern over safety in biotechnology and the need for adequate risk assessment in the area of molecular technologies. In this context the International Labour Office (ILO) has produced a document: Study on Safety in Biotechnology, National Guidelines. (NGO - Non-Govermental Organization) NGOs at PrepCom IV criticised the Agenda 21 text on biotechnology for its lack of references to the need for caution and careful testing of biotechnologies. In a reaction to the text which was the basis for negotiations at the beginning of the session, the Biotechnology Working Group of NGOs wrote, "It is predicated on a one-dimensional view, that biotechnology applications can benefit the environment, and totally ignores the risks that are also pre- sented by genetic engineering". There are significant differences in the positions of developing and developed countries regarding the safety questions and possible benefits of biotechnology. Whereas the research and development in biotechnology is primarily taking place in the industrialised coun- tries, the greatest richness of genetic material is found in the tropical forests of the developing countries. Also, even the ge- netic materials which are referred to as 'primitive' have often benefitted from centuries of careful selection and improvement in developing countries. This causes a diversity of interests between the South and the North, especially as the technology is largely in the hands of a few private industrial concerns. A complex and and extremely contentious issue is the question of intellectual property rights. Corporations that are investing in developing new biotechnologies are calling for the international application and enforcement of patents to protect their "intellec- tual property". The implications for developing countries and par- ticularly for farmers are enormous. It is estimated that farmers will pay $7 billion in royalties to patent holders and could even be prevented from saving seeds from one year to the next. The cur- rent conceptualisation of intellectual property rights does not provide for remuneration for the seeds and knowledge that small farmers and indigenous peoples have contributed to the development of agricultural and medical biotechnologies. The Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI) has estimated that the U.S. alone owes the Third World $302 million for royalty for farmers' seeds and $5.1 billion for pharmaceuticals. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | Biological processes form about 40 per cent of the world | | economy - 90 per cent if you are poor. If patenting of life | | forms goes through, which is the assumption of the UNCED | | documents, it will be an enormous tax on the poor. If there is | | no effort to say this is unacceptable, we'll find that life is | | owned: it will be a trade issue, just another commodity. | | | | - Pat Mooney, | | Rural Advancement Foundation | | International (RAFI), | | speaking at an NGO plenary during | | PrepCom IV | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ Another major concern is the industrial testing of potentially dan- gerous biotechnological products, especially in developing coun- tries which do not have the regulations, capacity or public knowledge to effectively monitor the procedures and ensure their safety. The case of the rabies vaccine is just one illustration of this danger. *** Biotechnology Programmes for Agenda 21 *** The programmes of Agenda 21 in biotechnology are closely linked to the ideas being pursued in the drawing up of in relation to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The programmes focus on envi- ronmentally sound management of biotechnology, and the development of sustainable applications of biotechnology and of enabling mech- anisms particularly in developing countries: o Increasing productivity for food, feed and renewable raw mate- rials is concerned with successful and environmentally safe ap- plications in agriculture, the environment and in health care. It includes activities to use biotechnology to allow greater production of food by developing more productive varieties of crops, farm animals and fish, as well as faster growing trees for fuelwood; o Improving human health is particularly concerned with pro- tection against communicable diseases; o Enhancing protection of the environment, includes the use of biotechnology in such areas of environmental improvement as reforestation, soil conservation, waste treatment and recycling biomass; o Enhancing safety and developing international mechanisms for cooperation aims to ensure safety in biotechnology through an international agreement on principles to be applied in risk as- sessment and management; o Establishing enabling mechanisms for the environmentally sound application of biotechnology is concerned with the need for ca- pacity building, especially in developing countries, to make use of the new technologies which are available for training, know-how, research and development, industrial building capac- ity, and developing expertise in areas such as marketing and safety assessment.